NONVERBAL MESSAGES
IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS
[CHAPTER13]
If asked what the word fastmeans, you are likely to pause, because you
know the word has different meanings in different contexts. If the subject is run-
ning, fast is associated with speed; if the subject is food, fast may be associated
with not eating or take-out food. Nonverbal behavior has the same multimeaning
potential because it can be interpreted differently in different contexts. People who
are sad look down at the floor, but so do people who are submissive or shy.
Knowing which meaning to attribute to a behavior requires knowledge of the
context. A smile displayed by a powerful and energetic person to a submissive
and passive person may be seen as sinister, but the very same smile from the
same person directed at another powerful and energetic person may be viewed
as a happy smile. If any given facial expression can be interpreted in multiple
waysas delight, contentment, pleasure, approval, interest, or sexually inviting
then we need to understand how contextual features help us pinpoint the most
likely meaning.
What is context? Those features of a social encounter that provide key markers
for the meaning of any given behavior are usually identified as the context.
Philippot, Feldman, and Coats (1999, p. 13) say that nonverbal behavior can be
fully understood only when considered within its social context.You may feel like
you understand the meaning of a particular nonverbal behavior because you are
aware of certain aspects of context: (1) some personal or background characteris-
tics of the people involvedtheir relationship, their age, their group membership,
their gender; (2) some environmental featuresthe number of people involved, the
The context is the frame of reference for interpreting an action.
S. W. Littlejohn
395
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accompanying lighting or noise, the time of day, the furniture configuration; (3) the
expectations and norms for the situationlearning, therapy, fun; or (4) various
message featuresthe topic, the emphasis given the behavior, what other verbal and
nonverbal behavior preceded and followed the behavior in question, and so on.
These features of context give meaning to nonverbal messages. Whenever we produce
nonverbal messages, they have the potential to change contextual features, too.
In this chapter, we discuss nonverbal messages in the context of advertising,
politics, education, culture, therapy, and technology.
ADVERTISING MESSAGES
No one in modern society needs to be told that we are surrounded by advertising.
Nevertheless, people routinely underestimate the broad scope of its influence. Tele-
vision, magazines, and other forms of media do far more than bombard us with
direct appeals to buy products. To buy a product, you have to lay down your
money; but the media exert a powerful influence on us even when nothing is
bought. By immersing us in images, concepts, and associations, the media and the
advertisers shape the values, attitudes, stereotypes, associations, assumptions, and
expectations by which we live. Thus, advertising does far more than tell us to buy
certain products. It speaks to issues that concern, and sometimes preoccupy, all
people. Advertising penetrates into areas of intense personal concern for nearly
everyone, such as the following:
What does success mean?
How does one define beauty?
How should I behave in order to be socially acceptable?
How do people belonging to different groups behave, and what do they value?
On what should I base my self-esteem?
What kind of a person do I want to be?
Advertising provides, in both blatant and subtle ways, answers to these questions.
Furthermore, advertising does far more than just supply answers to these
questions: It legitimizes the underlying premises that success, beauty, and social
acceptance are the keys to happiness, and that stereotypes have validity. And it
does this without our putting a penny on the counterindeed, often without our
even noticing.
Many commentators have railed at the subtle influence and the homogenizing
power of the concepts and assumptions that are planted in our minds by advertis-
ing. But individuals who are exposed to advertising, which is everyone, are likely
to deny advertisings influence when it comes to themselves. We are like the
fish who dont know they are wet: If these images are all we know, then that is
the only reality we knowso how can we imagine an alternative? People also rou-
tinely deny social influences on themselves that they can readily see influencing
others. This Im immune to what influences other peoplefallacy is common; we
see it when people deny that smoking will harm their health, that they are victims
of discrimination when they obviously are, or that they engage in faulty ways of
thinking about the social world, while at the same time recognizing that other
peoplemake these errors all the time.
396 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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People appear to have a built-in bias against recognizing what influences them.
Social psychologists have documented this in countless studies (Nisbett & Wilson,
1977; Wegner, 2002). The sheer fact that researchers can routinely conduct
psychological experiments in which situational factors are manipulated to influence
behavior without the participantsawareness proves that peoples insight into the
sources of their behavior is frighteningly weak (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).
On those occasions when one is on guard for attempted influence, one is
most likely to attend to what is being said. Is this person telling me the truth? Are
advertisers misrepresenting the product or the issues? But the kinds of influence
that are most likely to go unnoticed and remain out of awareness areyou guessed
itnonverbal in nature. In advertising, nonverbal information accounts for an
overwhelming amount of the total message, especially if we include information
provided by settings, backgrounds, props, possessions, clothes, hair, makeup,
music, and physical and group characteristics of the people shown in addition to
nonverbal behavior such as facial expression, tone of voice, and body movements.
The nonconscious impact rests more on the nature and juxtaposition of these
images and sounds than on what is actually said. As we all know, the verbal mes-
sages contained in advertisements are often silly, irrelevant, meaningless, or not
likely to promote distinctive associations to the product. Yet the message can be
powerful indeed.
That the influences are mainly nonverbal means that we are less guarded
against their influence and less critical of their content. But to make matters
worse, we are most vulnerable to such influences when we are distracted or when
we are not closely attending to, or even resisting, the advertisers persuasion
attempts (Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983). When people feel a personal
involvement in an issue, they attend closely to the quality of the arguments and
are able to ignore irrelevant information. However, when they are not very
involvedwhich is the state people are in when exposed to most advertisingthey
are prey to nonconscious influence by irrelevant information, such as how sexy the
model is, how charming the puppy in the ad is, how happy the people in the
ad appear to be, or how wise and honest looking the spokesperson is. Cues such
as these have their influence through various psychological mechanismssome of
which have been mentioned previously in this bookfor example, by associative
learning, by modeling, by emotional contagion, and by inducement of mimicking.
Thus, we are most vulnerable when we are in precisely those circumstances under
which we experience most advertising. Furthermore, laboratory research shows
that nonverbal cues that are impossible to notice consciouslythat is, those pre-
sented subliminallycan serve as primesthat influence subsequent behavior,
such as behavior toward certain racial groups (Chen & Bargh, 1997). The images,
associations, and stereotypes represented in advertising penetrate our minds
through constant repetition and their fleeting and seemingly peripheral nature. But
peripheral they are notthey are the message.
Empirical research is not required to show us the validity of this analysis, yet
research does exist. One area of intense study has been the representation of gender
in advertisements. Goffman (1979) listed several ways in which the nonverbal
portrayal of women suggests demeaned status relative to men: the relative size of
men versus women; how objects or people are touched or grasped; which gender
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 397
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appears to be in charge of the activity; the presence of ritualized subordination
gestures, such as averting the eyes; unseriousclowning or childlike poses; and
the occurrence of licensed withdrawal,when women separate themselves from
the ongoing activity. Of course, one can add other specific ways in which the gen-
ders are shown stereotypically: the roles assigned to men and womenthe male
worker versus female homemaker, or male narrator versus female onscreen charac-
ter; the distribution of products to male and female onscreen characters, such as
showing men advertising life insurance, electronic products, and financial services
and showing women advertising health and beauty products and retail stores; and
gender disparities in body display and sexualization (Bartsch, Burnett, Diller, &
Rankin-Williams, 2000; Ganahl, Prinsen, & Netzley, 2003; Goffman, 1979; Kang,
1997). One area of concern is how the male and female body is depicted in the
media, both in terms of its form and function. With respect to form, magazines
and television tend to show relatively more of mens faces and relatively more of
womens bodies (Archer, Iritani, Kimes, & Barrios, 1983; Copeland, 1989; Dodd,
Harcar, Foerch, & Anderson, 1989; see Chapter 9). And the disturbing, unspoken
message of these depictions is that photos showing more of the face are seen
as more intelligent and dominant (Schwarz & Kurz, 1989; Zuckerman, 1986). In
addition, the bodies of actors and actresses in television programs have changed
over the years, with more muscular men and thinner women being seen by viewing
audiences. Such depictions may communicate erroneous expectations about the typ-
ical male and female body type. More disturbing still, the nonverbal behavior of TV
characters toward people with particular body types may even help shape peoples
cultural views concerning body ideals. Weisbuch and Ambady (2009) showed that
thin women were the recipients of more positive nonverbal behavior than heavier
women by TV characters, and that this nonverbal biascan result in women hold-
ing and thinking that others hold slim body type ideals for females. The human
body can perform many functions, such as playing a sport or an instrument, solving
a problem, painting, writing, and building or fixing things; these are all things that
highlight the bodys role in the expression of human competencies. The human
body also can arouse and satisfy sexual needs. One concern is that women, and
increasingly men, are being depicted in the media in ways that stress how they are
merely body parts that can be used for the sexual gratification of others.
Specific nonverbal cues are enacted differently by males and females, too. In
advertising aimed at children, boys are dominant, aggressive, effective, victorious,
and likely to manipulate objects, whereas girls act shy, giggle, cover their faces,
avert their eyes, lower or tilt their heads, and touch objects gently (Browne, 1998).
In advertising showing adult characters, women smile more and stand in a more
canted position, with weight unevenly distributed (Halberstadt & Saitta, 1987).
Because such gender-stereotypical portrayals feel very normal and expected, it is
difficult for us to grasp how profound the assumptions are on which they are
based. Only if boys acted like girlsand vice versa would the viewer suddenly
see the stereotyping in action. One might counter that the portrayals of men and
women are simply reflecting the way men and women behave in real life. Though
to some extent this is true, many of the nonverbal expressions and mannerisms
shown in advertising are strong exaggerations of real-life gender differences, or
they show behaviors that ordinary men and women do not actually engage in.
398 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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Advertising manipulates not only how we think about products, but also how
we feel emotionally, how we think about social groups, and how we think about
ourselves. More negative nonverbal behaviors directed at black versus white char-
acters on TV may be one way in which racial biases are transmitted to viewers
(Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009). Images of beautiful people who seem very
successful and happy simultaneously invite us to identify with them—“If I drink
PRETTY SEXY!PRETTY UNREALISTIC!PRETTY HARMFUL?!
No doubt this image will strike a number of
people as sexy. An admiring male is being
treated visuallyand, as implied by the easy-
to-drop heart over the genital region, soon
physicallyto the delights of an incredible
female body.
The words incredible and female body
were chosen carefully as they speak to the
unrealistic and potentially harmful aspects
of this image. First, women do not possess a
flawless bodyone that is perfectly shaped
and devoid of bodily hair, blemishes, stretch
marks, and excess weight. Yet these ideal-
ized images of the female figure are every-
where in advertising, suggesting that they
might represent the standard of female
attractiveness as opposed to something that
is altogether unrealistic. Rarely do you read
disclaimers about how these body images
have been subjected to digital retouching.
You might have noticed that something
is missing in this imagethe womanshead!
She has been reduced to a sexual object because the focus is on what is redher breast and genital regions. What
might ultimately be most sexy about this woman to the man has been chopped off; specifically, those things that
give the woman her individuality, such as her personality, intelligence, skills, goals, desires, not to mention her
face! The woman is thus nothing more than a body to be looked at and used by another for visual and sexual
pleasure.
For women, what are the potential harmful consequences of being exposed often to idealized and sexual-
ized images of other women in advertising? One consequence is that women may learn to view themselves
from the perspective of an observer (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). In other words, they start seeing them-
selves as an object to be evaluated according to the standards of others (standards that have been informed
by such images in advertising). The objectified female body in advertising leads women to self-objectify.
This theorized state of mind is thought to lead to a number of detrimental psychological and behavioral
consequences in women, including excessive appearance monitoring, feelings of dehumanization and
shame, and eating disorders.
LuminaStock/iStockphoto.com
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 399
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this beer, I can become just like them”—and to think we are sadly inadequate by
contrast: My boyfriend isnt as cute as the guy in the ad, my sex life doesnt seem
as exciting, I dont have such a nice car, and my thighs will never look that good.
The subtle message that the viewer is inadequate is a large part of advertisings
lethal power. Even the current fad for television ads to be rapid-video montages,
with many images that change so quickly you hardly know what you saw, is
more than just a way to get the viewers attention. It is a way to make viewers
feel slow, dull, and excluded from the exciting, fast-paced life of the people on
the screen.
Advertisers use both research and common sense in planning their strategies.
No doubt a great deal of advertising research is done in-house and is never pub-
lished in journals. But there is no shortage of published advertising research, some
of it very early indeed. An article from 1923 asked the reasonable question, How
much smiling should an actor show for different kinds of products?(Burtt &
Clark, 1923). Research participants were shown faces with different degrees of
smiling and were asked to name products that would sell best with each kind of
smile. They thought that clothing would be sold best by a relatively unsmiling
face, whereas toilet articles, amusements, and food would sell better if the actors
smiled more.
Of course, asking people what kind of advertising messages they think would
work best is not the best way to evaluate effectiveness. An advertiser would want
to know about actual consumersresponses and about their purchasing choices.
Current advertising researchers are especially interested in indirect methods of
understanding viewersemotional responses, and they learn about these responses
by measuring brain activity, recording tiny electric impulses in the facial muscles
associated with different emotions, and cataloguing which facial muscles move visi-
bly (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999; Raskin, 2003; Young, 2002; see Chapter 9 for a
description of such methodologies). For example, such methods may reveal the dif-
ference between a viewers true enjoyment smile and the polite smile of a viewer
who is just saying what the researcher wants to hear. In Chapter 10 we also
described early interest in using changes in pupil size as an indicator of viewers
product preferences.
The fields of selling and marketing do not concern themselves only with adver-
tising; consumers also have face-to-face interactions with salespeople. It should
come as no surprise to know that salespeople are coached in their nonverbal
behavior, for example, to remember to smile at the customer. Researchers evaluate
not only the impact of such coaching (Peterson, 2005) but also the relation
between nonverbal decoding skill and effectiveness at being a salesperson (Byron,
Terranova, & Nowicki, 2007). Indeed, salespeople who scored higher on a stan-
dard test of decoding emotional expressions in the face were more successful in
both real estate and auto sales.
Should you be worried about advertisings power to exploit and manipulate
you with nonverbal cues and images? Yes! But considering that you can hardly
take up residence on a desert island (assuming there would be no advertising
there), the best you can hope for is to arm yourself against these effects by develop-
ing your knowledge of nonverbal communication and the use of psychological
tactics (Cialdini, 2007).
400 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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POLITICAL MESSAGES
Politicians have long recognized the important role of nonverbal behavior. Presi-
dent Lyndon Johnson is said to have been very sensitive to what nonverbal cues
can communicate. He reportedly cautioned his staff not to stand in front of the
windows and look across the street at the White House the day after President
John F. Kennedys assassination for fear it would appear as if they were looking
for power. In journalist Bob Woodwards (2004) book about how and why Presi-
dent George W. Bush and his staff initiated a preemptive attack on Iraq, he notes
how members of Bushs cabinet paid close attention to Bushs body language. In
the following excerpt involving General Tommy Franks, we can see that Bush, too,
felt nonverbal signals played a critical role in understanding a persons reaction:
Im trying to figure out what intelligent questions to ask a commander who has
just impressed me in Afghanistan. Im looking for the logic. Im watching his body
language very carefully,Bush recalled. He emphasized the body language, the eyes,
the demeanor. It was more important than some of the substance. It was also why he
wanted Franks there in Crawford and not as another face on a wall of screens. (p. 66)
The average American watches approximately 30 hours of television per week,
which adds up to nearly 10 years by age 65. Television can highlight nonverbal sig-
nals that can influence voters, and political candidates know that the image they
project on TV will affect voter choices. But biases toward candidates reflected in
the facial expressions of newscasters who report on these political candidates also
may play a role in voter decisions (Friedman, DiMatteo, & Mertz, 1980; Mullen
et al., 1986).
Some argue that political candidates in the United States have become so pre-
occupied with the image they project that their concern for arguments supporting
their policies has diminished. If this is true, it is because politicians are well aware
that image has the potential to trump their positions on issues (Ailes, 1988;
Budesheim & DePaola, 1994). Physically unappealing candidates and candidates
whose behavior does not signal energy, confidence, likeability, and a connection to
voters are not likely to play well on television. Candidates whose nonverbal
demeanor signals a positive relationship message on TVfacial expressions that
communicate sincerity, body positions that suggest immediacy, and vocal tones
that are perceived as caringare more likely to garner voter support. Television
requires what Jamieson (1988) calls a new eloquencea softer, warmer style of
communication.This in no way minimizes the necessity of a candidate also dis-
playing nonverbal signals that would help to communicate assertiveness and
energy. How have U.S. presidential candidates fared in the image competition?
During the first of the 1960 television debates between presidential candidates
Richard Nixon and John Kennedy, analysts often discussed Nixonslossinterms
of how he presented himself on television, that is, his five oclock shadow show-
ing through the stage makeup, lighting conditions that accentuated a tired face, a
suit that blended into the background, and so forth. Nixon has been quoted as
saying he spent too much time studying and not enough time on his physical
appearance (Bryski & Frye, 19791980; Tiemens, 1978). A movement analysis
by Davis (1995, p. 213) indicates Nixons appearance was only one of his non-
verbal drawbacks.
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 401
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Nixon sits with a tense, narrow posture, whereas Kennedy sits with legs crossed, hands
resting easily, his weight centered. In the medium camera shots, Nixon can be seen
gripping the lectern tightly and not gesticulating for long periods of time, although his
head movements are clear and emphatic. And Nixon displays a disastrous pattern of
hyperblinkingnot just abnormally frequent (more than one per second), but at times
with such rapid flutters that his eyes momentarily close. By comparison Kennedy
clearly wins despite his rather ordinary and constricted showing.
It was widely reported and believed that radio listeners judged the debate a
draw, whereas television viewers felt Kennedy was the winner. Even though the
accuracy of this conclusion has been questioned, the belief that it was true may
have been largely responsible for subsequent concern about the influence of non-
verbal signals in political campaigns and debates (Kraus, 1996; Vancil & Pendell,
1987; see Figure 13-1).
Since 1968, the strategies used to create favorable images of political candidates
have become more widespread and more sophisticated. The visuals on candi-
date Web sites are specifically designed to develop the candidatesimageinareas
that are believed to help the candidate win votesfamily photos or videos that
imply the candidate is a person with family values,or images of the candidate
dressed casually and speaking to people who work in restaurants and factories
to show the candidates connection to voters (Verser & Wicks, 2006). The commu-
nication environment at the candidates speeches and television appearances is
carefully constructed. At a 2004 campaign speech in Indianapolis, White House
aides asked people in the crowd behind President George W. Bush to take off their
ties so they would look more like the people who would benefit from his tax cut.
FIGURE 13-1
One of the 2008 Presidential debates between John McCain and Barack Obama.
Roger L. Wollenberg/UPI/Landov
402 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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Backdrops with pictures and slogans accompanied most of Bushs speeches and
became a part of any photo of Bush, the speaker. For some who saw the photo in
the newspaper the next day, the composite message of Bush and the backdrop
summed up the speech completely (see Figure 13-2). When President Bush selected
the site of a small shipping company to deliver a speech on how his economic plan
would favor small business, his aides put up American flags and a backdrop saying
Strengthening the Economy.Boxes near the podium stamped Made in China
were covered, and a backdrop of boxes labeled Made in USAwas added.
Analysts of the 1976 CarterFord presidential debates argue that Gerald Fords
loss was attributable to less eye gaze with the camera, grimmer facial expressions,
and less favorable camera angles (Tiemens, 1978). Subsequently, Jimmy Carters
loss to Ronald Reagan in the 1980 debate was attributed to Carters visible tension
and his inability to coordinate his nonverbal behavior with his verbal message
(Ritter & Henry, 1990). Effective leaders are often seen as people who confidently
take stock of a situation, perform smoothly, and put those around them at ease.
Many saw Presidents Reagans and Clintons nonverbal behavior this way. In
1984 Reagans expressiveness and physical attractiveness were evident, whereas
his opponent, Walter Mondale, was perceived as low in expressiveness and attrac-
tiveness (Patterson, Churchill, Burger, & Powell, 1992). President Clintons com-
munication style was a double-edged sword for him. One the one hand, he seemed
able to empathize with an audience; on the other hand, his facile verbal and non-
verbal style led some to question his trustworthiness, which was evident in the
label, Slick Willie.Expressions of fear and uncertainty may be the biggest turnoff
FIGURE 13-2
Bush using a backdrop to create an image.
Charles Bennett/AP Photo
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 403
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for voters. These include looking down; hesitating; making rapid, jerky movements;
or seeming to freeze, as Dan Quayle did when Lloyd Bentsen told him in the 1988
vice presidential debate, Youre no Jack Kennedy.There have been other notable
turnoffs during presidential debates. During a debate with Bill Clinton and Ross
Perot, President George H. W. Bush glanced at his watch, which, for many, sig-
naled rightly or wrongly his noninvolvement and impatience with the audience or
issues at hand (see Figure 13-3). Finally, in 2000, Al Gore was criticized for exces-
sive sighing as well as for invading the personal space of presidential candidate
George W. Bush.
The fact that the faces of presidential candidates are so prominent in their cam-
paign literature and television ads makes this feature especially important in deter-
mining voter perceptions. In one study, individuals whose faces seemed more
threatening were less likely to win an election (Mattes et al., 2010). In another
study, people looked at facial photos of the candidates vying for congressional
offices from 2000 to 2004 and made a decision about which one appeared more
competent. The candidates judged more competent in the U.S. Senate races won
71.6 percent of the time; the candidates judged more competent in the races for the
U.S. House of Representatives won 68.8 percent of the time. A follow-up study
found similar results when the judges were allowed only one second or less to
view the faces (Olivola & Todorov, 2010; Todorov, Mandisodza, Goren, & Hall,
2005). Thus, people with competent-appearing faces seem to be more electable.
Are there facial cues that could lead to higher ratings of competence for indivi-
duals vying for political office? Riggio and Riggio (2010) argue that facial cues of
dominance coupled with approachability are key. Verhulst, Lodge, and Lavine
(2010), on the other hand, argue that more familiarity with the face and greater facial
FIGURE 13-3
President Bush checks his watch during a debate.
Ron Edmonds/AP Images
404 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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attractiveness can lead individuals to think a person is more competent. Greater facial
maturity and attractiveness are other possibilities (Olivola & Todorov, 2010). For
example, when one of the candidates has a more matureface, and his rival is
more baby faced, judgments of competence will tend to favor the more mature face
(Poutvaara, Jordahl, & Berggren, 2009; Zebrowitz, 1997). Keating, Randall, and
Kendrick (1999) digitized the faces of Presidents Clinton, Reagan, and Kennedy and
made them look more or less mature by altering the size of the eyes and lips. A less
mature-faced Clinton, with bigger eyes and lips, was perceived as more honest and
attractive, even by those who did not support him in the 1996 election. Clintons
power ratings were not affected by his youthful look, but Reagan and Kennedy were
seen as less powerful when their faces were made to look less mature.
If you plan to get involved in politics one day, you might begin to worry about
your electability, especially if you have questions about the appearance of your
face. However, rest assured, people who are highly involved in selecting a candi-
date are probably not influenced as much by the facial cues of candidates (Riggio
& Riggio, 2010). Moreover, even though a facial quality such as babyfaceness is
linked to lower ratings of perceived political competence, this does not mean that a
baby-faced candidate is doomed to failure (Poutvaara et al., 2009; see Figure 13-4).
Fortunately, the image advisors are not yet in control of all the variables, the
least of which is the publics increasing knowledge of how political images can be
molded. A carefully controlled appearance and scripted verbal behavior can readily
be offset, or put in perspective, when candidates engage in spontaneous speech and
interactive dialogue about substantive issues.
TEACHERSTUDENT MESSAGES
Whether it takes place in the classroom itself or not, the process of teaching and
learning is a gold mine for discovering the richness and importance of nonverbal
behavior (Andersen & Andersen, 1982; Babad, 1992; Philippot, Feldman, &
McGee, 1992; Woolfolk & Brooks, 1983). The following are only a few reminders
of the ways in which nonverbal cues play a crucial role in this context:
1. Nonverbal cues between teachers and students signal a close or distant
relationship.
2. Students avoid eye gaze with teachers to avoid participation.
FIGURE 13-4
Which candidate is more competent?
Science and Capitol Advantage/
AP Photo
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 405
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3. Studentsbody postures and facial expressions display their interest and
attention in what the teacher is saying.
4. Studentsand teachersdress, hair length, and adornment affect classroom
interaction and learning.
5. Disciplinary enactments by teachers may manifest in negative facial expressions,
threatening gestures, or critical vocal tones.
6. Teachers announce they have plenty of time for student conferences, but fidget
and glance at their watch when students come to see them.
7. Teachers may try to assess student comprehension and learning by visually
scanning studentsfacial expressions.
8. Classroom designwall colors, space between seats, size and placement of
windowsaffects student participation and learning.
Subtle nonverbal influences in the classroom can sometimes have dramatic
results, as Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests
were given to elementary school pupils prior to their entering for the fall term.
Randomlythat is, not according to scoressome students were labeled as high
scorers on an intellectual blooming test,indicating they would show unusual
intellectual development in the following year. Teachers were given this informa-
tion. These students showed a sharp rise on IQ tests given at the end of the year,
which experimenters attributed to teacher expectations and to the way these stu-
dents were treated. Rosenthal and Jacobson had this to say:
To summarize our speculations, we may say that by what she said, by how and when
she said it, by her facial expressions, postures, and perhaps by her touch, the teacher
may have communicated to the children of the experimental group that she expected
improved intellectual performance. Such communications together with possible
changes in teaching techniques may have helped the child learn by changing his self-
concept, his expectations of his own behavior, and his motivation, as well as his
cognitive style and skills. (p. 180)
In an effort to identify the cues associated with teacher expectancies, Chaikin,
Sigler, and Derlega (1974) asked people to tutor a 12-year-old boy. The boy was
described as either bright to one group and dull to another group, and a third
group was given no information about the boys intelligence. A 5-minute videotape
of the tutoring was analyzed for behaviors indicating liking and approval. Tutors
of the so-called bright boy smiled more, had more direct eye contact, leaned for-
ward more, and nodded more than either of the other two groups. In general,
then, people who expect others to do well, as compared to those who expect poor
performance, seem to:
1. Create a warm socioemotional climate
2. Provide more differentiated performance feedback
3. Give more difficult material and more material
4. Give more opportunities for the performer to respond (Blanck, 1993; Harris &
Rosenthal, 1985; Rosenthal, 1985)
A related line of research has examined teachers who are perceived as
more and less immediatein their style of teaching (McCroskey & Richmond,
1992). We saw in Chapter 12 that immediacy behavior signals liking, warmth,
406 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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and positive affect, and sometimes immediacy is shown when teachers move
around the classroom and gain proximity to their students. Sometimes it involves
more teacher smiling, facial expressions of interest when students are talking,
maintaining eye gaze with students, using a friendly vocal tone, or other beha-
viors that students associate with liking and warmth. Research by Smythe and
Hess (2005) found that student perceptions of their teachers immediacy behavior
is not always an accurate reflection of how their teacher actually behaves, but
numerous studies show that when college students do associate nonverbal imme-
diacy with a teacher, they are more likely to like the teacher and the course.
There is also more teacherstudent interaction in these classes, and students
report that they would like to take another course from that instructor. Students
feel they learn more from teachers who exhibit immediacy behavior, which obvi-
ously is an important outcome. One motivational benefit of teacher immediacy
includes studentsdesire to persist in college (Wheeless, Witt, Maresh, Bryand,
& Schrodt, 2011).
In terms of actual or perceived learning outcomes, the data available at present
do not provide consistent and conclusive evidence that students actually feel more
competent or learn more from teachers who exhibit more immediacy behavior
(Allen, Witt, & Wheeless, 2006; Goodboy, Weber, & Bolkan, 2009; Harris &
Rosenthal, 2005; Houser & Frymier, 2009; Witt, Wheeless, & Allen, 2004). At
this point it seems reasonable to assume that perceived teacher immediacy will
improve some types of student learning but not others. Nor does it seem unreason-
able to assume that certain types of students will profit more or less from perceived
teacher immediacy.
Even though plenty of evidence supports the conclusion that perceived teacher
immediacy behavior has a positive impact on some important student perceptions,
the exact nature of that behavior, and the way it is displayed throughout the length
of the class, is not well known. For example, does a teacher have to exhibit imme-
diacy behavior throughout every class period to be perceived as immediate,or is
the optimum style a mix of immediate and less immediate behavior? When does
immediacy behavior signal that the course is easyor that the teacher is a push-
over? Can a teacher be stern, strict, and businesslike and also communicate posi-
tive affect to his or her students? Woolfolk (1978) and others have found that even
negative nonverbal behavior can elicit quality student performance sometimes, but
it is unlikely to be an effective teaching style if used for the duration of the class.
And even though we know the types of behavior associated with immediacy, it is
still not clear how such behaviors should be enacted for them to be perceived as
having an immediate teaching style.
Sometimes teachers treat some students better or worse than others, for example,
because of race, gender, and unpleasant interactions with them. Do students perceive
these teacher biases even when the teachers believe they are suppressing them? Not
always, but certainly much more than teachers believe. Students are often keenly
aware of subtle nonverbal signals that convey messages teachers believe they are
effectively masking. Babad (1992) argues that teachers need to admit their biases to
themselves and recognize that such biases are likely to be perceived by others.
Once that is done, more realistic goals for studentteacher communication can be
developed.
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 407
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Thus far we have been focusing on teacher behavior, but the classroom is a
two-way street in which teachers and students mutually influence one another. As
we have observed, teacher immediacy behavior elicits a number of positive out-
comes from students. But students who exhibit immediacy can also elicit positive
outcomes from teachers (Baringer & McCroskey, 2000). We have much to learn
about the nonverbal communication of warmth and closeness in learning environ-
ments, and this knowledge will be increasingly important as student exchange pro-
grams and distance education continue to increase (Guerrero & Miller, 1998;
Mottet, 2000; Park, Lee, Yun, & Kim, 2009).
CULTURAL MESSAGES
When we learn the rules and norms people expect our behavior to match, we
are learning about culture. All of us exist within several culturesour family, our
religious group, our social class, our age group, our school, our workplace, our
gender, and our society. So some cultural teaching is a part of all our communica-
tion behavior. Culture in this section focuses on large groups of people, possibly
millions, who vary in age, sex, gender, and social class but share a set of nonverbal
behaviors that help to define them as a culture.
Any behavior identified as characteristic of a large group of people, however,
does not mean that every person or every conversation in that culture will always
exhibit that behavior. For example, a culture described as one in which people
touch each other often may also have some members whose conversations do not
involve much touching; and some conversations may be devoid of touching even
though the interactants normally do a lot of touching. When touching is identified
as a characteristic of a culture, it simply means that this group of people generally
tends to touch each other more when compared with other groups of people.
Scholars believe cultures differ on a variety of dimensions (Gudykunst &
Ting-Toomey, 1988), but three dimensions in particular are useful for examining
variations in nonverbal behavior: (1) high-contact versus low-contact cultures,
(2) cultures that value individualism versus cultures that value collectivism, and
(3) high-context versus low-context cultures.
HIGH-CONTACT VERSUS LOW-CONTACT CULTURES
Cultural differences in touch have been well documented (Andersen, 2011). For
example, people in so-called high-contact cultures establish close interaction dis-
tances and touch each other frequently (Hall, 1966). They enjoy the olfactory and
tactile stimulation that comes with this kind of interpersonal involvement. Central
and South America, southern Europe, and the Middle East are often classified as
high-contact regions; Asia and northern Europe are viewed as low contact.
The United States has traditionally been labeled a low-contact culture. Informal
observations by Jourard (1966) would seem to support this designation. He mea-
sured the frequency of contact between couples in cafés in various cities and
reported the following contacts per hour: San Juan, Puerto Rico, 180; Paris, 110;
Gainesville, Florida, 2; London, 0. Cultural habits do change, and people in the
United States may be touching more now than at any time in their history (see
408 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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Touchy Topic,2000; Willis & Rawdon, 1994). In the early 1970s, Barnlund
(1975) conducted a comparative study of Japanese and U.S. touching patterns
using self-reports from 120 college students in each culture. In almost every cate-
gory, the amount of physical contact reported in the United States was twice that
reported by the Japanese. A much more recent observational study on a U.S.
campus of romantically involved cross-sex couples found that Asian couples were
far less likely to walk with arms around one another than were Latino couples
(Regan, Jerry, Narvaez, & Johnson, 1999). Similarly, McDaniel and Andersen
(1998), in a study of cross-sex touch among travelers in a U.S. airport, found that
travelers from the United States touched notably more body regions than did
northeast Asians, who touched less than any group observed, including southeast
Asians, Caribbean and Latin Americans, and northern Europeans. Although this
study measures extent of touch, not frequency of touch, it does suggestas do the
other studies reviewed herethat whereas Asia, especially northeast Asia, may
indeed have low contact as its norm, the United States seems to have norms that
are further in the contactdirection. As the U.S. population grows ever more eth-
nically diverse, any broad label would probably be an oversimplification.
Classifying cultures as either high or low contact inevitably covers up differ-
ences. For example, Central and South America are both classified as high con-
tact,but Shuters (1976) systematic observation of people interacting in natural
settings suggests that public touching and holding decrease as one moves south
from Costa Rica to Panama to Colombia. And as we noted earlier, when we label
a culture as high or low contact, we should not forget that there are likely to be
important variations within a culture. Halberstadt (1985), for example, reviewed
race differences and nonverbal behavior and found that black Americans tend to
establish larger interpersonal distances for conversation than white Americans do, but
they also engage in more touch. As we reflect on high- and low-contact cultures, we
should also recognize the importance of distinguishing between frequency and
meaning. Two cultures may display different frequencies of touch, especially in public,
but it is a separate question as to whether the meanings attached to those touches are
different as well. Communicating intimacy through touch could be done similarly in
both cultures even though one culture allows more public touching than the other.
INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM
Cultures have also been distinguished from one another by the extent to which they
manifest individualism or collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1994). Individual-
istic cultures emphasize things like personal rights, responsibilities, achievements,
privacy, self-expression, individual initiative, and identity based on personal attri-
butes. Regions said to typically manifest behavior aligned with this orientation
include the United States, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Germany, Belgium, and Denmark. Nonverbal signals that support indi-
vidualism may include such things as environments designed for privacy; eye gaze
and vocal signals that exude confidence, strength, and dynamism; and distinctive
clothing. Dion (2002) argues that stereotyping based on facial attractiveness will
also be more prevalent among members of individualistic cultures, because facial
attractiveness is another way to highlight distinctiveness.
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 409
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Cultures with a collective orientation tend to emphasize things that show the
value they put on their group membership. Of special concern would be things
like interests shared with group members, collaborating for the good of the group,
maintaining harmony within the group to ensure it functions well, and maintaining
traditions that emphasize group values and successes. Global regions typically
associated with collectivism include Venezuela, Japan, Pakistan, Peru, Taiwan,
Thailand, Brazil, Kenya, and Hong Kong. Among other things, we would expect
nonverbal signals in collective cultures to exhibit familiar routines, rituals, and
ways of behaving that are widely known and practiced in the culture; a high
frequency of deference behavior, such as bowing, gaze avoidance, and politeness
routines that include the suppression of emotional displays that might offend the
group; and behavior designed to avoid calling attention to the actions of an indi-
vidual when it could be detrimental to the group.
HIGH-CONTEXT VERSUS LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES
According to Hall (1976), low-context cultures tend to rely on verbal messages.
Words are valued because they are believed to provide information in a direct,
explicit manner. Saying what you want to say as unambiguously as possible is
valued, and ambiguity is not well tolerated. In contrast, high-context cultures are
more likely to rely on implicit and indirect messages. Nonverbal behavior is valued,
and messages gain their meaning by knowing the context. What everyone knows
is the key to understanding, and ambiguity is better tolerated. Such culture distinc-
tions can even impact online interactions. Pflug (2011) noted that people from
India, a high-context culture, used more emoticons than people from Germany, a
low-context culture.
Of course, people come from cultures that vary on a combination of dimensions,
such as low-context versus high-context and individualistic versus collectivistic.
In consideration of this, how do people from the United States (low-context/
individualistic) and China (high-context/collectivistic) express their appreciation for
a close friend or a romantic partner? Bello, Brandau-Brown, Zhang, and Ragsdale
(2010) found that the Chinese used more indirect methods, and that Americans
relied equally on verbal and nonverbal methods, whereas the Chinese used more
nonverbal than verbal methods.
Effective communication in some cultures may rely more on contextual
knowledge than in some other cultures, but the need to understand context is an
issue that permeates any cross-cultural encounter. Ignorance of context leads to
misunderstandings. Outsiders,or people who are less knowledgeable about a cul-
ture, are less knowledgeable about contextual cues that give meaning to certain
behaviors.
SIMILARITIES ACROSS CULTURES
The fact that cultures exhibit different nonverbal behaviors gets a lot of attention.
It should. These differences often lead to problematic encounters. But it is also
important to understand that similarities exist across cultures as well. Some of these
410 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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similarities occur because people in one or more cultures adopt a behavior exhibited
in another culture. Today, information flows freely across cultures, so it is not
difficult to imagine how a gesture or style of adorning the body could become a
multicultural phenomenon. Information about behavior in other cultures is regularly
exchanged via travelers, magazines, movies, the Internet, and other ways.
Similarities in nonverbal behavior also occur across cultures for another
reason: They may be part of an inherited neurological program that members of
the human species acquire. In Chapter 2, we noted that the eyebrow raise or eye-
brow flash has been observed in greeting behavior in cultures around the world.
Chapter 2 also reported the work of Ekman and his colleagues (Ekman, 2003;
Ekman et al., 1969), who found people in literate and nonliterate cultures around
the world who could decode six facial expressions of emotion with a high degree
of accuracy; in turn, these people could make these same expressions, and these
could be decoded by people from other cultures, also with a high degree of accu-
racy. Researchers have also found considerable cross-cultural agreement on which
faces are attractive and unattractive, and some scholars speculate that this agree-
ment occurs because it is linked to the survival of the species (Cunningham, Barbee,
& Philhower, 2002; Dion, 2002; Etcoff, 1999; Rhodes, Harwood, Yoshikawa,
Nishitani, & McLean, 2002). Mothers from individualistic and collectivistic cul-
tures show similarities in terms of the touching, rocking, and vocalizing they do in
response to their infants expressions of pain, which could represent another adap-
tation that was vital to the survival of our species (Vinall, Riddell, & Greenberg,
2011). The list of cross-cultural similarities in nonverbal behavior is not long, but
areas that may prove fruitful to explore include meanings associated with extremes of
eye gaze and the need for territory. Some research on refusal and greeting sequences,
reported in Chapters 2 and 12, suggests humans may even have hard-wired patterns
of behavior.
These underlying similarities among humans are not always readily visible,
because cultural teachings may direct members to mask or minimize them. For
example, the asiallinen matter of factnonverbal style in Finland demands expres-
sive restraint in facial displays. People from more expressive cultures may view this
as a nonexpression, but Finns see it as a valued expression showing emotional con-
trol. In fact, some Finnish leaders have lost credibility with their constituents by
publicly showing a lack of emotional control through facial expressions that were
too reflective of their feelings (Wilkins, 2005).
THERAPEUTIC SETTINGS
Anyone who has ever visited a medical doctor or a psychotherapist knows that
the nonverbal cues exchanged in such a visit are important to the outcome of the
visit. In this section, we suggest four areas in which nonverbal communication is
important in dealing with distress and illness, whether physical or mental:
1. Understanding the disorder. How do clinical professionals define different
conditions, such as depression?
2. Diagnosis. Does the clinician reach correct conclusions about the clients
problems, states, and progress?
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 411
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3. Therapy. Is the clinician able to help the client solve his or her problems and
maintain good physical and psychological functioning?
4. Relationship. Do the clinician and client develop a positive and trusting
interpersonal relationship?
For each of these goals, nonverbal cues play an important part (Gorawara-Bhat,
Cook, & Sachs, 2007; Hall, Harrigan, & Rosenthal, 1995; Robinson, 2006;
Schmid Mast, 2007). In terms of understanding a disorder, studying nonverbal
behavior and skill can help researchers develop theories about the nature of the dis-
order. In fact, nonverbal behavior might be part of the definition. For example, the
definition of depression includes the expression of sadness, and the definition of
schizophrenia includes the display of inappropriate nonverbal behavior. Similarly,
autism is defined in part by the idea that such patients lack the ability to infer
whats going on in someone elses head; therefore, a deficit in the ability to judge
emotional expressions would be a definitional element of the disorder. As summa-
rized in previous chapters, and by Perez and Riggio (2003), many groups with psy-
chological disordersincluding depression, schizophrenia, alcoholism (Philippot,
Kornreich, & Blairy, 2003), and autism (McGee & Morrier, 2003)score lower
on accuracy in judging the meanings of nonverbal cues than do control groups.
At present, it is not clear to what extent the nonverbal decoding deficit so evident
in impaired groups is tied uniquely to the nature of their disorders or instead
reflects other factors, such as a general deficit in cognitive ability, lowered motiva-
tion to focus on experimental tasks, or the effect of medications. Studies need to
include appropriate control tasks, along with the nonverbal sensitivity tests, to
resolve this question.
Nonverbal cues are also important in the process of diagnosis by practicing
clinicians. The process of clinical care, either by medical doctors or psychothera-
pists, involves expert knowledge and cognitive skills acquired through training;
nevertheless, most of what clinical care consists of is interpersonal interaction.
Basically, clinicians and clients talk to each other, and it is through the medium of
speech that therapeutic action occurs. Naturally, nonverbal behavior is a crucial
component of this interaction.
The clinician routinely studies the patient for nonverbal signs that will shed
light on problems and progress. In a psychotherapy visit, the therapists ability to
read signs of emotionespecially those that signal issues not brought up verbally,
those that are upsetting to clients or are denied by themis central. In medical vis-
its, the physician is attuned to emotional and psychosocial issues that might be
causing, or be caused by, a medical condition. For instance, a patient might start
experiencing depression in the aftermath of a heart attack.
Many studies have investigated the display of different nonverbal cues in rela-
tion to different psychological disorders. For example, researchers have shown
that the stereotype of the depressed person as downcast and slow in response has
validity. Evidence of decreased general movement; decreased expressiveness;
decreased speech, gestures, eye contact, and smiling; halting speech; and a deficit
in the ability to express emotions have all been documented in depressed persons
(Bouhuys, 2003; Ekman & Friesen, 1974; Ellgring, 1986; Perez & Riggio, 2003;
Waxer, 1976).
412 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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Some forms of schizophrenia are marked by a voice that is flat and monotone,
and an increase in very subtle muscle activation in the corrugator muscle of the
facethe muscle associated with distressed-looking eyebrowsis observed com-
pared to control participants, even when viewing positive stimuli (Kring & Earnst,
2003). Other nonverbal characteristics of schizophrenia include lack of facial
expression, inappropriate affect displays, increased self-touching, and less interper-
sonal gazing. As discussed in Chapter 10, some nonverbal behaviors are distinc-
tively associated with autism and related conditions such as Asperger syndrome,
most notably gaze avoidance but also less smiling and gesturing (McGee &
Morrier, 2003).
Another illustration of the diagnostic use of nonverbal cues is in the detection
of pain. Obviously, efforts to alleviate pain may not be started if the cues to
pain are missed, which would be a real problem for the person who cannot ver-
bally report being in pain. One study showed that family members did not seem
to be aware of the nonverbal pain cues of loved ones with dementia (Eritz &
Hadjistavropoulos, 2011). Research finds that medical professionals often under-
treat pain, perhaps because they have not correctly decoded the relevant pain
expressions.
Researchers have documented the configuration of facial cues indicative of dif-
ferent kinds of pain in both infants and adults (Patrick, Craig, & Prkachin, 1986;
Prkachin, 1992). Some common indicators include lowering the brows, narrowing
the eye openings, raising the cheeks, raising the upper lip, and wrinkling the
nose. Analysis of cues may reveal information not forthcoming from self-reports
provided by patients. For example, chronic and acute sufferers of temporoman-
dibular joint disorder, which causes painful jaw movement, reported the
same amounts of pain, but the chronic group showed more facial indications of
pain both when alone and when experiencing painful procedures (LeResche,
Dworkin, Wilson, & Ehrlich, 1992). Nonverbal cues can also reveal differences
in the behavior of people actually experiencing pain versus those just pretending
(Prkachin, 1992).
There are also nonverbal behaviors associated with the Type A personality
syndrome (a risk factor for heart attack), including loud and explosive speech
and other behaviors suggestive of hostility. Indeed, many studies implicate hostil-
ity as a precursor to heart disease. In a recent study, facial expressions coded by
the FACS (see Chapter 9) were associated with transient occurrences of ischemia,
a condition in which there is insufficient blood supply to the muscles of the heart,
a predictor of serious and even fatal coronary events. Men with known heart
conditions were videotaped in interviews, and physiological measurements were
made. Those experiencing episodes of ischemia showed more expressions sug-
gestive of anger and more nonenjoyment smiles than those without ischemia
(Rosenberg et al., 2001). Results such as these could influence physicianscare
of these patients.
During medical education, there is a widespread trend to increase training and
awareness of communication factors in medical care. Nevertheless, physicians typi-
cally receive only a limited amount of training in communicating with patients,
including recognizing patientsstates and conditions through an enhanced aware-
ness of nonverbal cues. Clearly, physicians can use this kind of knowledge. It is
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 413
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very important that physicians not only notice cues but that they also draw appro-
priate interpretations from them. Nonverbal cues can also be tied to diagnostic
judgments by considering them as an unobtrusive source of information on the
patients progress. Ellgring and Scherer (1996), Ostwald (1961), and others have
found that vocal qualities, smiling, movement, and other nonverbal behaviors can
change following psychotherapy.
Thus far, we have discussed ways clinicians make use of the clients cues. The
client also studies the clinician for signs of understanding, interest, approval, rejec-
tion, and reassurance. The clinicians nonverbal behavior may facilitate a good
relationship, a high level of trust, and a good exchange of informationwhat are
together called the therapeutic alliance”—or it may make the client feel disre-
garded and misunderstood. Hall, Horgan, Stein, and Roter (2002) found that both
patients and physicians were able to judge with significant, though not great, accu-
racy how much they are liked by the other, certainly an impression that could have
far-reaching consequences. In that study, patients whose doctors liked them less
were less satisfied and more likely to consider changing doctors over the following
year. Greater satisfaction and attributions of empathy are associated with doctors
who gaze, lean forward, nod, gesture, establish closer interpersonal distances, and
have warm and enthusiastic voice quality. Sometimes certain combinations of phy-
sician cues have the best effect. Hall, Roter, and Rand (1981) found that patients
were most satisfied when their physiciansvoice tone was negative, for example
anxious, but combined with words that were positive, a mix that seemed to convey
concern plus positive regard. Physicians who are better able to decode the mean-
ings of nonverbal cues have patients who are more satisfied and more likely to
keep their appointments (DiMatteo, Hays, & Prince, 1986; DiMatteo, Taranta,
Friedman, & Prince, 1980). Those researchers also found that physicians who
were more accurate at expressing nonverbal emotion cues in a posed task had
more satisfied and compliant patients. So far, it is not known how these nonver-
bally skilled physicians put their skills into action in the medical encounter, but we
can imagine that they might be good at showing empathy, creating a warm atmo-
sphere, or picking up on the patients unmentioned issues.
Medical educators now stress the importance of developing a good relationship
with patients. It is a fallacy to think that physicians and patients are just enacting
well-learned roles, or that physicians are cognitive machines that crank out profes-
sional behavior without having feelings or showing emotions. Clinicians and clients
of all sorts develop relationships; they may be of a unique and highly structured
kind, but they are relationships nonetheless. Therefore, all that we know about the
role of nonverbal behavior in attraction, attitudes, impressions, rapport, emotions,
and persuasion is relevant to this special context.
TECHNOLOGY AND NONVERBAL MESSAGES
Virtually all the research reported in this book has been designed to enhance your
understanding of nonverbal behavior in face-to-face interaction. But an increasing
amount of our communication is mediated by various forms of technology. Two
issues emanating from this trend are especially pertinent to the study of nonverbal
414 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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AMORE SENSITIVE MCAT?
When you visit your physician, you are
comforted by the knowledge that he or
she understands biology, chemistry, bio-
chemistry, and physics well, especially as
they pertain to the development and
health of your body. As you might already
know, the Medical College Admission
Test (MCAT) assesses this sort of scientific
intelligence. What you may not be sure
about is his or her social, psychological,
and cultural knowledge of people. There
is no test for that, right?
That used to be the case, but not
anymore.
If you are interested in becoming a
physician, you will need to prepare for a
new section of the MCAT (starting
in 2015), one dealing with the social, psy-
chological, and cultural aspects of human
behavior. In this changing and increas-
ingly diverse world, physicians need to
be sensitive to how factors, such as
patientscultural and social background,
might influence their patientshealth.
Nonverbal cues not only provide clues
to a patients state of health, they are
also helpful in determining his or her
likely social and cultural background.
However, a physiciansabilitytodecode
patient nonverbal messages and encode
important nonverbal information to
patients (e.g., disapproval for medication noncompliance) in a manner that is both effective and sensitive
to the patients background (e.g., age, socioeconomic status, education, race, ethnicity, culture) is likely a
product of years and years of hands-on training. Years and years of practice do not not guarantee the
development of this skill, though. Regrettably, no test is currently available that assesses a physicianssocial
intelligence (or ability to eventually possess a high degree of it) around patients, save oneyou! You can
always choose to leave a physician who does not respond appropriately to you.
At present, researchers are attempting to understand the characteristics of physicians who are better at
decoding nonverbal cues as well as the consequences of this enhanced nonverbal sensitivity for the medical
visit (Hall, Andrzejewski, & Yopchick, 2009). Moreover, efforts are under way to develop tests that can
help physicians recognize the emotion cues of patients, such as the Patient Emotion Cue Test (PECT)
(Blanch-Hartigan, 2011).
Jupiterimages/Photos.com
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 415
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
communication: First, does technology eliminate the role of nonverbal signals in
face-to-face interaction? Second, do changes in the manifestation of nonverbal
behavior mediated by technology result in less effective communication?
The answer to the first question depends on what kind of communication
technology we are talking about and how it is used. Computer-mediated communi-
cation may be verbally dominant, as in texting and email; it may have verbal text
with an anthropomorphic icon or photograph (pic); it may provide ongoing
visual images of interactants through videoconferencing or webcams on personal
computers; and, in the case of immersive collaborative virtual environments
(CVEs), it might involve the interaction of two- or three-dimensional animated
representations of the interactants in the form of avatarswho embody each
interactants desired behaviorincluding frowns, winks, and smiles. Text messag-
ing via cell phones may reduce the role of nonverbal behavior, but cell phones
also have the ability to instantly complement a written message with vocal cues or
a photograph. Even those forms of communication that are verbally dominant,
such as text messaging and email, are not completely devoid of extraverbal signals.
For example, people associate meanings with the length of time it takes a person to
reply, when during the day the message is sent (Walther & Tidwell, 1995), the
depth or detail of the reply, and the number of spelling errorsperhaps a sign of
how much care went into composing the message, or perhaps the senders compe-
tence. The meanings associated with these and other features of the communication
will no doubt vary with the nature of the interactantsrelationship, their online inter-
action history, how important or pressing the issue is, and the like (see ring &
Pöschl, 2009).
Will communication effectiveness suffer when people communicate in ways
that eliminate or severely reduce their opportunity to see, touch, and exercise
control over the interaction context? During the early stages of the technology
boom, many theorists and practitioners believed that the effectiveness of human
communication mediated by technology would suffer. They argued that technol-
ogy could not effectively restore what would be lost by the lack of human copre-
sence (Walther, 2006). However, one could argue that the success of Facebook,
where people can let their friendsknow what they are doing, post picsand
videos of themselves and others, respond with a liketo anothers wall post,
view othersphoto albums, and play games with like-minded friends, suggests
that such computer-mediated technologies may be filling a void in the lives of
many who lack sufficient interpersonal contact with meaningful others in the
real world.
Human beings and the ever-increasing number of new communication technol-
ogies relate to each other in complex and diverse ways. People can, of course, use
face-to-face communication when they need to use more nonverbal messages in an
interaction (Riordan & Kreuz, 2010). However, some messages can be effectively
communicated through various technological instruments without all the nonverbal
signals that might accompany the same message in face-to-face interaction. When
messages are short, uncomplicated, and can be easily understood without comple-
mentary and redundant information from other channels, almost any type of
mediated communication, including text and email messages, can be successful.
416 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
However, email messages have been found to be less effective in accurately commu-
nicating sarcasm, humor, and certain emotions when compared to vocal and face-
to-face communication. Adding to the problem is the discovery that the people
who sent the email messages greatly overestimated the accuracy of their messages.
Kruger, Epley, Parker, and Ng (2005), who base their conclusions on five studies,
point out that it is apparently hard for the senders of email to appreciate the inter-
pretive perspective of the receiver.
What is lost, however, is ongoing feedback and relationship information that
could be used to adapt message content. Herbert and Vorauer (2003) found that
evaluative feedback was more positive and more accurate in face-to-face interaction
than over email. Some believe that the absence of ongoing feedback and relation-
ship information in less personal forms of communication, like email, facilitates
less sensitive, self-focused, critical, and deceptive messages (Kiesler, Siegel, &
McGuire, 1984). It is not clear, however, whether less personal communication
channels are also less civil. Bullying occurs in the classroom and on the playground
as well as in cyberspace via email, instant messaging, blogs, and so on (i.e., cyberbul-
lying). But is less civil behavior more widespread in email messages or face-to-face
interactions in general? Is less civil behavior more likely in email messages but only
under certain circumstances? Is less civil communication behavior more likely related
to individual style than it is to the nature of the media used to communicate? We are
still seeking the answers to these questions.
Interactive video often allows interactants to accomplish their communicative
goals, but remote interaction via video does not seem to generate the same interper-
sonal impressions as face-to-face interaction. Storck and Sproull (1995) found less
positive feelings among interactants who used interactive video when compared to
those who interacted face to face. And in an Australian study dealing with genetic
counseling via videoconferencing, practitioners reported difficulties in detecting cli-
ent nonverbal cues and with rapport building, even though they were satisfied with
the delivery format overall (Zilliacus et al., 2010).
Sometimes the introduction of nonverbal cues to computer-mediated communi-
cation can be problematic. Apparently college students already know this. In a
study of 1,000 college students, Rumbough (2001) found that 37 percent used the
Internet to meet new people, but only 11 percent posted a picture of themselves.
Without a picture, students did not have to deal with visual cues that might act as
a distraction or source of a stereotypefor example, weight, race, or physical
attractivenessthat might hinder message credibility and relationship development.
These media users want the introduction of any potentially problematic visual cues
to be considered in conjunction with a history of positive interactions. When
photos were introduced to partners who had been working and interacting online
on several tasks, it resulted in lower ratings of affection and social attraction for
their partners, but it had the opposite effect for unacquainted partners who did
not have a history of interaction (Walther, Slovacek, & Tidwell, 2001). Even the
introduction of dynamic nonverbal signals in videoconferencing does not guarantee
more effective communication, unless the images produced fit the viewersneeds.
When videoconferencing focuses on the interactantsfaces, it may facilitate com-
munication for more personal messages, but not when an object, such as a new
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 417
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
product, is the focus of the discussion, or when the goal of the videoconference is
to teach a skill, such as bike repair (Brittan, 1992; Gergle, Kraut, & Fussell, 2004;
Kraut, Fussell, & Siegel, 2003). The effectiveness of technology-mediated messages
is also dependent on individual needs and preferences. Some people are more com-
fortable in contexts with more nonverbal cues, and some are comfortable with
less. Certain groups of individuals may share a preferencefor example, online
dating services typically report that males are far more likely to use a photo of
the potential date as the basis of a dating decision than are females. Given the
adaptable nature of human beings, it is safe to assume they will not simply be
slaves to technology. Before the computer was invented, typists used capital letters,
underlining, quotation marks, and parenthetical phrases like just kiddingto off-
set the lack of vocal and visual cues. Computers are equipped with even more
options to make a senders message clearer and reduce uncertainties on the part
of the receiver, for example, bold lettering. Emoticons such as :) for happy or for
something intended as humorous, and :( for sad are commonly used to add infor-
mation to an email that might otherwise be communicated by facial or vocal
expressions. But despite widespread recognition of the meaning of these two sym-
bols, they apparently have relatively little impact on the interpretation of email
messages, with one exception: frown emoticons tended to reduce the favorable or
constructive ratings of positive messages (Walther & DAddario, 2001). In addi-
tion to textual adaptations, the email message itself can be flagged as a priority,
or it may be accompanied by a request for an acknowledgement of receipt. Coping
also occurs when a communicator uses more than one type of technology to com-
municate a message, especially important and urgent ones: a text message or email,
for example, that is followed by a cell phone call. In short, people who are striving
to communicate effectively will learn how to use one or more mediated forms of
communication to suit their needs and offset any deficits created by missing non-
verbal cues. The ability to effectively decode nonverbal cues sent in the form of
computer-generated visuals will also characterize effective communicators in the
digital age. Virtually anyone with a computer and some program like Photoshop
has the ability to alter visual images. Given the high credibility accorded visual
images in this culture, these altered images can be very persuasive, and they
are easily circulated to a broad audience. Just as skilled observers of nonverbal
behavior in face-to-face encounters learn what cues to attend to for effective
decoding, skilled observers of online photos and videos will need to learn what
features raise suspicion about an images authenticity as well as how they can ver-
ify or put those suspicions to rest (Knapp, 2008; Lester, 2006; Messaris, 1994;
Mitchell, 1992).
Technology users are not the only ones who are interested in the role of
nonverbal signals and effective communication; the makers of new technologies
are also looking for ways to make their instruments better reflect face-to-face inter-
action. The future is likely to offer a greater sophistication in the area of touching
(Bailenson & Yee, 2007), smell, and three-dimensional images. The production of
avatars with realistic human hair, skin, and smooth movement coordination that
reflect cultural, regional, and ethnic differences are yet to be developed. But it
seems likely that they willchallenging the study of nonverbal communication in
ways we never envisioned.
418 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
SUMMARY
Understanding the meaning of nonverbal behav-
ior requires an understanding of context. This
chapter examined various forms of nonverbal
behavior in several familiar contexts: advertising,
politics, education, culture, therapy, and computer
mediated.
Nonverbal messages embedded in advertising
can be extremely influential. A wide variety of non-
verbal signals including music, hairstyle, clothing,
possessions, and responsiveness are used to influ-
ence the viewer or hearer. When the target of the
ads is distracted during the processing of the ads
information, and multiple exposures to the ad
occur, the impact can be even more powerful.
These nonverbal signals not only help sell products,
they can also influence the expectations, percep-
tions, and attitudes of the people exposed to them
as they relate to actual daily social interaction.
It often seems as if political candidates are
obsessed with creating the rightimage, and
more often than not, displaying the rightnon-
verbal signals is a compelling part of that image.
Images of a candidate can be honed by carefully
structuring the environmentthe music, back-
drop, others presentwithin which he or she is
viewed. Managing how the candidate looks with
the help of makeup and the appropriate clothes
and hairstyles is also important, as is structuring
behavior, such as having a candidate act more
assertive.On several occasions, the outcome
of televised presidential debates has been attrib-
uted to nonverbal signals: calm demeanor versus
tension, confidence versus uncertainty, warmth
versus coldness, shortness versus height, listening
with interest versus smirking, and so on.
The learning process in elementary, secondary,
and college classrooms is also influenced by
nonverbal messages. Students whose nonverbal
signals communicate liking and warmth get posi-
tive outcomes from their teachers, and students
also believe they learn more from teachers who
exhibit such behaviors. Some research, however,
indicates that negative nonverbal behavior by a
teacher can have positive outcomes for learning
in the short run.
Some nonverbal behavior is common to
human beings throughout the world, but many
of the behaviors we exhibit are taught to us by
our culture. We explored three dimensions along
which cultures vary in order to highlight cultural
differences in nonverbal behavior. These dimen-
sions focused on close versus distant behavior,
behavior focused on highlighting the individual
versus highlighting the group, and behavior that
assumes a great deal of contextual knowledge for
interpretation versus behavior that assumes little
contextual knowledge. Although these broad cul-
tural characterizations are a useful place to start,
it is important to remember that variations also
exist within cultures.
The clinical situation is another context in
which nonverbal messages are crucial. Therapists
and physicians rely on nonverbal signals to
help them understand and diagnose depression,
schizophrenia, autism, pain, and other mental
and physical disorders. Equally important are
nonverbal signals that occur as part of the
communication between therapist and patient
during therapy. Both patient and therapist are
especially attuned to cues that may signal emo-
tions being felt.
In a similar manner, physicians can learn to
read nonverbal signals emanating from their
patients, which can be valuable signs of an illness,
fear, or how the patient feels about his or her
physician. In the same way, patients can use non-
verbal signals to assess how their physician feels
about their illness and their relationship.
To varying degrees, nonverbal signals also
play an important role in messages mediated by
technology. Just as in face-to-face interaction,
nonverbal signals accompanying technology may
complement, repeat, substitute, accent, regulate,
and conflict with verbal behavior. In some cases,
however, the number and type of nonverbal
signals are quite limited. Despite this, messages
can be effectively communicated even though
the lack of copresence often takes its toll on
how the participants feel about each other.
Sometimes the introduction of nonverbal cues
CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 419
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
in computer-mediated communication facili-
tates effectiveness; sometimes it hinders it. As
technology-mediated communication increases,
human beings will make adaptations with
the signals available to them while seeking to
approximate face-to-face interaction as much
as possible. At the same time, the makers of new
technology will increasingly incorporate alter-
natives for conveying nonverbal information that
more closely approximates face-to-face interaction.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Discuss how the nonverbal behavior of a
patient and physician can mutually influence
each other. Next time you visit a counselor
or physician, try to carefully observe that
persons nonverbal behavior. Is it as effective
and positive as it could be?
2. You are a consultant to a vibrant, physically
appealing presidential candidate who is not
adeepthinkerandsoisunabletomakegood
arguments for his or her platform. What would
you do to get this person elected? Now reverse
the situation: You are advising a person who is
adeepthinkerabletomakegoodarguments
for his or her platform, but this person is not
dynamic and is physically unappealing. What
do you do to get this person elected?
3. Suppose you were hired to advise incoming
college freshmen on what nonverbal behavior
they should enact to impress their teachers.
What advice would you give?
4. In what ways do you think advertising
influences your nonverbal behavior? How
does advertising influence your perceptions
of other peoples nonverbal behavior? As an
exercise, take careful notes on the use of
nonverbal communication in television adver-
tisements for a few hours. Did you notice
things you had not noticed before?
5. Different cultures exhibit different nonverbal
behavior, and sometimes these differences
cause communication problems when people
from those different cultures interact. But it is
also true that sometimes these differences
occur and there are no problems. Under what
conditions do you think problems would or
would not occur?
6. Select a short scene from your own life
in which you were interacting with another
person. Then assume you and your partner
were communicating that same scene via a
technology of your choice (e.g., computers,
cell phones). Identify the difficulties and
advantages the technology has for communi-
cating the information in that scene.
7. Log onto to the following Web site: www.pbs.
org/30secondcandidate. Discuss how some of
the tricks of the trade for making a candidate
look good or bad are currently being used by
those who are seeking the presidency this
election cycle.
420 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
NAME INDEX
Aamodt, M. G., 73
Abbey, A., 363
Aboud, F. E., 338
Abra, G., 369
Abrahams, D., 156
Ackerman, B., 75, 76
Ackerman, J. M., 250
Acredolo, L. P., 201
Adam, G., 301
Adam, J., 92
Adams, K., 74
Adams, R. B., 303, 306, 317
Adams, R. S., 92
Addington, D. W., 336, 357, 358
Adelmann, P. K., 366
Adolph, D., 181
Adolphs, R., 313
Adrien, J. L., 313
Afifi, W. A., 235, 244
Agobiani, E., 113
Agthe, M., 159
Aguilera, D. C., 241
Aiello, J. R., 138, 139, 309, 386
Aiello, T. C., 138, 139, 386
Aik, V. C., 75
Ailes, R., 405
Akehurst, L., 291
Akert, R., 24, 69
Al Issa, A., 369
Albada, K. F., 163
Albright, L., 71
Alhoniemi, A., 306
Alibali, M. W., 217
Allen, K., 246
Allen, M., 411
Allert, T., 374
Allesen-Holm, B. H., 270
Allison, P. D., 156, 174, 177, 178
Almerigogna, J., 291
Alper, T., 238
Alpers, G. W., 303
Altman, I., 107, 108, 124, 132
Altmann, S. A., 44
Alwall, N., 300
Ambady, N., 10, 21, 25, 26, 57, 62, 66, 67,
71, 72, 78, 79, 167, 276, 282, 290,
345, 351, 383, 402, 403
Amidon, M. D., 328
Amole, D., 133
Andari, E., 314
Andersen, J. F., 9, 409
Andersen, P. A., 9, 234, 236, 365, 385, 409,
412, 413
Anderson, A. H., 299
Anderson, A. K., 285
Anderson, C. A., 102, 103, 112, 402
Anderson, D. E., 390
Anderson, J. L., 173
Anderson, R. J., 336
Andrzejewski, S. A., 25, 72, 75, 419
Anokhin, A. P., 43
Ansel, J., 312
Ansfield, M. E., 390
Antonoff, S. R., 270
Aoyama, S., 37
App, B., 242
April, C., 17
Archer, D., 24, 59, 69, 292, 402
Argo, J. J., 241
Argyle, M., 23, 24, 55, 63, 237
Ariely, D., 155
Aries, E., 340
Armstrong, N., 205
Aron, A., 163
Aronson, E., 160
Aronson, V., 156
Arriaga, X. B., 107
Arteche, A., 290
Arvey, R. D., 159
Asendorpf, J. B., 21, 360
Ashmore, R. D., 164
Asla, N., 62
Athanasiou, R., 120
Atsuko, A., 137
Aubanel, V., 339
Austin, C. M., 341
Austin, S. B., 100
Aviezer, H., 277
Avni-Babad, D., 142
Axtell, R., 205
Babad, E., 142, 409, 411
Babbitt, L. G., 383
Bachmann, T., 168
Bachorowski, J., 266
Back, M. D., 192
Badzinski, D. M., 27
Baeck, H., 336
Baehne, C. G., 301, 306, 307
Bailenson, J. N., 422
Baker, E. E., 80, 108, 164, 175
Bales, R., 144
Balogh, R. D., 180
Banse, R., 343, 346, 348
Barakat, R., 205
Barash, D. P., 128
Barbee, A., 167, 415
Barber, N., 184
Barbosa, P. A., 354
Barchard, K., 267
Bard, K. A., 308
Barefoot, J., 140
Bargh, J. A., 10, 39, 222, 226, 250, 334, 401
Baringer, D. K., 412
Barker, L. L., 349
Barkow, J. H., 31
Barlow, J. D., 318
Barlow, J., 233
Barnard, M., 188
Barnard, W. A., 137
Barnhart, K. T., 181
Barnlund, D. C., 413
Baron, R. A., 98
Baron, R. M., 168
Baron-Cohen, S., 303, 304, 313, 346
Barrett, K. C., 33
Barrett, R. P., 313
Barrett, S., 246
Barrios, M., 292, 402
Barsky, S., 105
Bar-Tal, D., 157
Barth, J. M., 77, 303
Barton, R. A., 51, 109
Bartsch, R. A., 402
Bastiani, A., 77
Bates, E., 222
Bauer, V. K., 79
Baum, A., 117
Baum, K. M., 75, 346
Bavelas, J., 218
Bavelas, J. B., 14, 16, 24, 214, 216, 217, 226,
261, 267, 298, 378
Baxter, L. A., 98
Bayliss, A. P., 300
Beaber, R. J., 346
Beach, S. R., 163
Beakel, N. G., 17
Beattie, G. W., 299
Beattie, G., 217, 218
Beatty, M. J., 43
Beck, L., 62
Beck, S. B., 174
Becker, F. D., 142
Becker, S. W., 143
Beets, J. L., 104
Behnke, R. R., 350
Belch, C., 76
Bélisle, J. F., 72
Bell, P. A., 109, 137
493
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Bellack, A. S., 76
Bello, R. S., 414
Belopolsky, A. V., 298
Bensing, J. M., 300, 316
Bente, G., 369
Bentin, S., 277
Berenbaum, H., 81
Berger, K. W., 218
Bergeson, T. R., 356
Berggren, N., 409
Berglund, H., 181
Berhenke, A., 291
Berke, J., 102
Berkowitz, L., 103
Berman, J. M. J., 330, 349
Berman, P. W., 164
Bernieri, F. J., 28, 60, 61, 65, 76, 222, 228,
298, 307, 328
Bernieri, F., 62, 67, 71, 74, 79, 276
Bernstein, M. J., 273
Berry, D. S., 80, 167, 168, 311, 336, 337,
338, 382
Berscheid, E., 154, 157, 164, 393
Bettens, F., 181
Bevan, W., 258
Bharucha, J. J., 344
Bickman, L., 189
Biddle, B., 92
Biddle, J. E., 159
Biehl, M., 72, 278
Bilo, H. J. G., 300
Bilous, F., 355
Biocca, F. A., 178
Bird, H., 221
Birdwhistell, R. L., 14, 22, 24, 28, 53, 220, 361
Birk, T., 350, 360
Biship, S. E., 328
Bishop, P. J., 173, 184
Bissell, K. L., 178
Bissonnette, V., 71
Black, A., 26, 226, 267
Blair, I. V., 339
Blair, R. J. R., 77
Blairy, S., 274, 416
Blake, R., 189
Blakemore, S., 313
Blanch, D. C., 419
Blanchard, J. J., 76
Blanch-Hartigan, D., 71
Blanck, P. D., 27, 345, 410
Blane, H. T., 345
Blascovich, J. J., 369
Blass, T., 253
Bleske-Rechek, A., 363
Bloch, P. H., 189
Bloom, K., 337
Blumstein, P., 371
Bluni, T. D., 189
Bochner, S., 193
Böckler, A., 300
Bodur, H. O., 71
Bogaert, A. F., 175
Bogart, K. R., 286
Bolkan, S., 411
Bollon, T., 274
Bolt, R., 334
Bonanno, G. A., 266
Bond, C. F., Jr., 390
Boniecki, K. A., 105
Booth-Kewley, S., 285
Boothroyd, L. G., 158, 167, 285
Boraston, Z. L., 313
Borelli, M., 245
Borenstein, M. N., 384
Borkenau, P., 66, 192, 382
Borkowska, B., 336
Bornstein, M. H., 289
Borod, J. C., 80, 289
Borrill, J., 78
Bosh, G., 391
Boss, D., 235
Bosshart, K., 314
Bouchard, T. J., Jr., 42
Boucher, J. D., 55
Bouhuys, A. L., 416
Bowers, A. L., 310
Bowyer, M. D., 339
Boyce, W. T., 71
Boyd, J., 99
Boyes, A. D., 173
Boyle, E. A., 299
Bradac, J. J., 340
Bradley, B. P., 312
Bradshaw, C. P., 101
Brady, R. M., 350
Brandau-Brown, F. E., 414
Brandt, F., 286
Brandt, J. F., 340
Brannigan, C. R., 261
Brauer, J., 300
Braun, C., 165
Braun, M. F., 158
Braunwald, K. G., 342
Bredie, W. L. P., 270
Breen, L., 162
Bregman, M. R., 333
Brewer, G., 193
Breyer, B. N., 176
Brickman, J., 162
Briggs, L. F., 385
Brinkman, H., 138, 235
Brislin, R. W., 156
Briton, N. J., 73, 386
Brittan, D., 422
Brizzolara, M. M., 138
Broadbent, M., 223
Broeders, A. P. A., 333
Bromley, S., 318
Brooks, C. I., 310, 311
Brooks, D. C., 93
Brooks, D. M., 409
Broughton, A., 307
Broune, V. T., 339
Brown, B., 337
Brown, B. B., 107, 108
Brown, C. E., 386
Brown, C. M., 273
Brown, E., 101, 291
Brown, J. W., 221
Brown, R., 26, 220
Brown, W. S., Jr., 341
Browne, B. A., 402
Brownlow, S., 341
Brunalt, M. A., 140
Bruneau, T. J., 357
Brunner, L. J., 260
Brunsma, D. L., 191
Bryan, A., 158
Bryand, M. C., 411
Bryant, B., 63
Bryant, R. A., 99
Bryski, B. G., 405
Buchanan, R. W., 26
Buck, R., 80, 81, 268, 276, 285, 388
Budesheim, T. L., 405
Bugental, D. E., 17, 18, 327, 385
Buker, H., 380
Bukowski, W. M., 175
Bull, P., 77
Bull, R., 162, 390
Bulleit, B. A., 242
Buller, D. B., 383
Burchard, K. W., 317
Burger, G. K., 407
Burger, J. M., 111
Burgess, C. A., 251
Burgoon, J. K., 17, 136, 218, 350, 351, 360,
368, 369, 372, 383, 390
Burk, N. M., 189
Burnett, A., 27
Burnett, T., 402
Burns, S., 159
Burt, D. M., 158
Burtt, H. E., 404
Buslig, A. L. S., 96
Buss, A. H., 255, 312
Buss, D. M., 156, 157
Bustos, A. A., 307
Butler, D., 292
Butler, E. A., 80
Butler-OHara, 39
Buttelmann, D., 51
Buunk, A. P., 176
Byrne, D., 128
Byron, K., 75, 404
Cable, D. M., 177, 245
Cacioppo, J. T., 226, 288, 401
Calabrese, S. K., 177
Caldara, R., 282
Calder, A., 312
Calder, A. J., 312, 346
Caldwell, D. F., 111
Calhoun, J. B., 129, 130
Call, J., 44, 51, 300
Calvo, M. G., 278
494 NAME INDEX
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Camden, C. T., 371
Cameron, G., 175
Cameron, H., 218
Camgoz, N., 109
Campain, R. F., 74
Campanella, P., 74, 273
Campbell, D. E., 104, 106, 114
Campbell, J. B., 98
Campbell, L. A., 99
Campos, J. J., 38
Camras, L. A., 38
Cancino, J. M., 104
Cannon, P. R., 285
Caplan, M. E., 140
Caporael, L. R., 342
Cappella, J. N., 52, 222, 227, 290, 308,
352, 371
Carchon, I., 154
Carey, M. P., 250
Carifio, M. S., 140
Carlsmith, J. M., 102, 309
Carlson, G. E., 55
Carnagey, N. L., 112
Carnevale, P. J., 160
Carney, D. R., 61, 67, 71, 72, 75, 79, 199,
307, 371
Carr, S. J., 113
Carrera, P., 266, 270
Carrington, P. I., 160
Carroll, J. M., 266, 277, 278
Cartei, V., 336
Carter, J. D., 60, 66, 68, 73, 319, 371
Carton, E., 75
Cary, M. S., 298
Cash, T. F., 159, 178
Casmir, F. L., 63
Cassell, J., 17
Castelli, L., 66
Castles, D. L., 255
Caudill, W., 138
Caul, W. F., 61, 67, 80, 81, 285
Cavior, N., 154
Ceci, S. J., 167
Cernoch, J. M., 180
Cervenka, E. J., 205
Ceschi, G., 273, 345
Chafetz, M. E., 345
Chaiken, S., 160, 161
Chaikin, A. L., 410
Chambers, C. G., 330, 349
Chan, R. S., 342
Channing, H., 173
Chapman, H. A., 285
Chapple, E. D., 356
Charles-Sire, V., 243
Charney, E. J., 223
Chartrand, T. L., 10, 39, 222, 223, 226,
344, 401
Chase, J., 261
Chawla, P., 218
Cheek, J. M., 255, 312
Chen, F. S., 314
Chen, M., 401
Chen, Y., 217, 218, 221
Cheney, D. L., 343
Cheng, J. T., 306
Cheryan, S., 93
Cheshire, C., 157
Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S., 47, 48, 50
Chiarella, S. S., 233
Choi, Y. S., 10
Chovil, N., 14, 16, 24, 214, 226, 261, 267
Christenfeld, N., 242, 355
Christy, A. M., 282
Christy, L., 291
Chung, J., 262
Church, R. B., 218
Churchill, M. E., 407
Cialdini, R. B., 101, 404
Cicone, M., 221
Cillessen, A. H. N., 142
Clance, P. R., 246
Clark, D. M., 312
Clark, H. H., 355
Clark, J. C., 404
Clausen, A., 199
Claypool, H. M., 273
Clement, R., 338
Cline, M., 277
Clode, D., 289
Clore, G. L., 365
Coates, L., 214, 217, 298, 378
Coats, E. J., 236, 307, 336, 363, 371,
387, 404
Cochard, E., 241
Cochet, H., 212
Cody, M. J., 363, 389
Coe, N. P., 317
Cohen, A. A., 216
Cohen, D., 39, 41, 61
Cohen, S. H., 191
Cohn, E. G., 102
Cohn, J. F., 273, 290
Colapinto, J., 29
Cole, P. M., 81
Cole, S. G., 312
Coleman, L. M., 342
Coles, C., 101
Collett, P., 63, 205
Collins, M. A., 169
Colvin, C. R., 67, 71, 72, 75, 79, 311, 382
Comadena, M. E., 392
Conaty, J. C., 371
Condon, W. S., 219, 221, 228, 229
Connelly, G., 214
Conner, B., 66
Connor, J. M., 233
Cook, M., 24, 144, 145, 146, 296, 347, 353
Cook, M. A., 416
Cook, S. W., 218
Coombes, C., 167
Cooper, J., 318, 383
Corballis, P., 274
Corcoran, J. F. T., 391
Corden, B., 313
Cortes, J. B., 170
Corthals, P., 336
Cosmides, L., 31
Costa, M., 135
Costanzo, M., 62, 69
Coulson, M., 200
Cousin, G., 372
Cowgill, S., 246
Cox, C. R., 179
Coyle, J. M., 363
Craig, K. D., 38, 39, 270, 417
Crane, D. R., 141
Crane, F. G., 63
Crane, J., 63
Crawcour, S. C., 310
Crawford, C. B., 156, 173
Creel, S. C., 333
Creider, C., 205
Critchley, H. D., 320
Crivelli, C., 270
Cronauer, C. K., 372
Crone, K. T., 355
Cronin, M., 119
Crosby, F., 318
Crosby, J. R., 300
Cross, C. P., 178
Crusco, A. H., 243
Cuddy, A. J. C., 199
Cunningham, M. R., 167, 415
Curran, H. V., 78
Curtis, J., 175
Curtis, J. F., 334
Curtis, M. E., 344
Custer, H., 73
Cutler, W. B., 181
Cyr, D., 111
Czogalik, D., 77
DAddario, K. P., 422
DErcole, A., 175
Dabbs, J. M., 113, 226, 311
Dadds, M. R., 314
Daigen, V., 340
Dalla Volta, R., 221
Daly, J. A., 253, 360
Damasio, A. R., 59
Danziger, K., 60
Darwin, C., 21, 44, 83, 261
Das, S., 380
Davidson, R. J., 272, 286
Davis, F., 179, 228, 277
Davis, J. M., 65, 307
Davis, M., 21, 81, 380, 401
Davitz, J. R., 23, 62, 344
Davitz, L. J., 344
De Cremer, D., 291
De Dea, C., 66
de Gail, M., 292
de Gelder, B., 200
de Leeuw, R. N. H., 161
de Ruiter, J. P., 218
NAME INDEX 495
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de Waal, F. B. M., 44, 130
de Wit, H., 335
Deabler, H. L., 109
Dean, J., 308, 367
Dean, L. M., 233
DeBruine, L. M., 158, 300
Deeds, O., 232
Deethardt, J. F., 234
DeFrank, R. S., 78, 80, 82, 276
DeGroot, T., 351
Dejong, W., 173
Demertzis, A., 75
Dennis, M., 36
Dennis, P. A., 83
DePaola, S. J., 405
Derlega, V. J., 241, 410
Dermer, M., 155
Desjardins, R. N., 341
deTurck, M. A., 390
Deutsch, S. I., 313
Devlin, A. S., 95
Devue, C., 298
DiBiase, R., 236
Dick, F., 222
Dickey, E. C., 73
Dickstein, S., 291
Diego, M., 232, 246
Diener, E., 161, 385
Dietz, J. K., 67
Dietz, W. H., 173
Dijkmans, M., 222
Dijkstra, P., 176
Dillard, J. P., 336, 360
Diller, T. R., 402
Dillman, L., 368
DiMatteo, M. R., 59, 81, 345, 418
DiMatteo, M., 405
Dimberg, K., 113
Dimberg, U., 274, 293
Dimitrovsky, L., 293
Dindia, K., 234, 340, 371
Dion, K. K., 112, 154, 160, 155156, 413, 415
Dipboye, R. L., 159
Disha, M., 174
Dispenza, F., 337
Dittmann, A. T., 23, 228, 229
Dixson, A. F., 173, 174, 184
Dixson, B. J., 173, 174, 184
Dobrogaev, S. M., 218
Dobson, S. D., 51
Dochin, E., 391
Dodd, D. K., 385, 402
Dodge, K. A., 77
Doherty-Sneddon, G., 301
Dolinski, D., 243, 384
Dollahite, D. C., 141
Don, L. S., 216
Doob, A. N., 317
Doody, J. P., 77
Döring, N., 420
Dornbusch, S., 173
Dorros, S. M., 235
Dorros, S., 250
Dosey, M., 141
Dovidio, J. F., 318, 369, 370, 372, 386
Downs, A. C., 161
Drescher, V. M., 244
Drew, C. J., 119
Driscoll, D. M., 211, 372
Driver, R., 72
Driver, R. E., 328
Droit-Volet, S., 99
Droney, J. M., 310, 311
Dubois, M., 274
Duck, S., 27
Dudarev, V., 277
Duke, M. P., 68, 74, 76, 80
Dukes, W. F., 258
Dulicai, D., 380
Dunbar, N. E., 369, 372
Dunbar, R. I. M., 176
Duncan, S., 352, 376
Duncan, S. D., Jr., 352, 376, 378
Dunlap, K., 276
Dunn, D., 160
Duong, D., 79
Durante, K. M., 159, 190
Durso, F. T., 274
Dushay, R. A., 217
Dworkin, S. F., 417
Dziobek, I., 313
Eagly, A. H., 137, 164
Earnst, K. S., 417
Eckland, B. K., 165
Edinger, J. A., 369
Edvardsson, D., 191
Edward, K., 390
Edwards, J., 76
Effron, D. A., 99
Efran, J. S., 307
Efran, M. G., 16
Efron, D., 22, 28, 211
Egland, K. L., 363
Egloff, B., 192, 255
Ehlers, A., 312
Ehrlich, C. M., 385
Ehrlich, K. J., 417
Ehrlichman, H., 301
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I., 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 45, 51,
52, 53, 54, 55
Eidenmuller, M. E., 111
Einhäuser, W., 319
Einon, D., 174
Eisenbarth, H., 303
Eisenberg, M. L., 176
Eisenkraft, N., 82
Eisenstat, R., 17
Eisner, F., 53, 343, 344, 346347
Ekman, P., 15, 21, 23, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 38,
53, 55, 56, 57, 62, 201, 202, 203, 205,
206, 210, 211, 253, 255, 256, 260,
261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 268, 269,
270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 278, 279,
280, 281, 282, 284, 288, 289, 302,
303, 341, 342, 387, 388, 390, 411, 412
Elaad, E., 390
Eldridge, C., 307
Elfenbein, H. A., 57, 62, 63, 75, 78, 82, 346
Ellgring, H., 416, 418
Ellgring, J. H., 297
Elliot, A. J., 51, 108, 110
Ellis, C., 264
Ellis, L., 380
Ellsworth, P., 266
Ellsworth, P. C., 24, 287, 309
Ellyson, S. L., 369, 370, 372, 386
Elmehed, K., 293
Emde, R. N., 38
Emerick, S. W., 288
Emmers, T. M., 234
Emmons, R. A., 285
Emmorey, K., 333
Engels, R. C. M. E., 307
Engstrom, E., 349
Epley, N., 327, 421
Epstein, J., 140
Epstein, J. A., 388
Erickson, B., 340
Erickson, F., 139, 220, 383
Eritz, H., 417
Erlich, P. R., 129
Esposito, G., 289
Etcoff, N., 155, 390, 415
Eubanks, J., 112
Evans, C. S., 343
Evans, G. W., 133, 142
Evans, J. W., 276
Evans, M. S., 311
Exline, R. V., 23, 307, 310, 316, 372
Fallon, A., 178
Faloultah, E., 160
Farabee, D. J., 312
Farb, B., 177
Farber, S. L., 42
Farley, S., 154, 341
Farrenkopf, T., 116
Farroni, T., 37
Farwell, L. A., 391
Fast, L. A., 75
Fazio, R. H., 255
Feder, B. J., 391
Feeley, T. H., 390
Fehr, B. J., 317, 372
Feinberg, D. R., 343
Feingold, A., 161, 164
Feinstein, C., 313
Feldman, R., 62, 76, 77, 233, 234, 342,
399, 409
Fells, C. A., 74
Ferber, A., 374
Ferguson, C. A., 341
Fernandes, M., 113
Fernández-Dols, J., 266, 267, 268, 277
Ferrara, M., 391
496 NAME INDEX
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Ferris, S. R., 326
Festinger, L., 120
Feyereisen, P., 217
Field, T., 39, 41, 61, 313, 232, 246, 285,
290, 313
Fielder, R. L., 160, 250
Figueiredo, B., 232
Figueredo, A. J., 176
Finando, S. J., 128
Fincham, F. D., 250
Fine, S., 75, 76
Fink, B., 193, 360
Finkel, L., 241
Finkelstein, S., 17
Finkenauer, C., 307
Finlay, K., 106
Fiore, A. T., 157
Fischer, A., 286, 390
Fischer-Lokou, J., 243
Fisher, J. D., 128, 231, 243, 249
Fisk, G. M., 292
Fiske, D. W., 352, 376
Fiske, S. T., 143
Fitzpatrick, M. A., 67
Flaisch, T., 200
Flamme, G. A., 113
Flegr, J., 296
Fletcher, B., 216
Floyd, K., 31, 249, 348, 364, 365, 390
Floyd, W., 164
Fluck, M., 291
Foddy, M., 314
Foerch, B. J., 402
Foldi, N. S., 221
Folger, J. P., 218
Foo, M. D., 75
Forestell, C. A., 174
Forgas, J. P., 317
Fortenberry, J. H., 189
Foss, C., 108
Foulsham, T., 306
Fowler, K. A., 71
Fox Tree, J. E., 355
Fox, E., 312, 355
Fox, M. N., 18
Fox, N. A., 272
Fraccaro, P. J., 343
Frandsen, K. D., 311
Frank, L. K., 23
Frank, M. G., 110, 191, 273, 274, 388, 390
Frankel, R. M., 71
Frederick, D. A., 174, 363
Fredrickson, B. L., 403
Freedman, J. L., 130, 253
Freedman, N., 253
Freyberg, R., 339
Freytag, P., 160
Friberg, L., 43
Fridlund, A. J., 55, 267, 268
Friedman, G. B., 21
Friedman, H. S., 81, 82, 259, 285, 326, 371,
405, 418
Friedrich, G. W., 21, 377, 378
Friesen, W. V., 23, 24, 28, 30, 32, 56, 62,
205, 210, 253, 255, 260, 261, 268,
269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 278, 288,
289, 302, 303, 387, 388, 416
Frischen, A., 300
Frye, J. K., 405
Frymier, A. B., 411
Fujita, F., 161
Fuller, B., 177, 237
Fuller, V. A., 251
Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., 177
Funder, D. C., 75
Fung, C. M., 175
Füri, S., 181
Furnham, A., 174
Fusco, M. E., 109
Fussell, S. R., 422
Gaddis, S., 107
Galati, D., 32, 35
Galinsky, A. D., 98
Gallup, G. G., Jr., 335
Ganahl, D. J., 398
Gangestad, S. W., 181, 363
Gantt, W. H., 244
Garb, J. L., 317
Garber, L. L., Jr., 109
Garber, P., 218
Garcia, G. R., 86
Garcia, S., 245
Gardner, H., 271
Gardner, W. L., 75
Garlick, R., 17
Garner, M., 312
Garrett, W. A., 104
Garrido, E., 390
Garrison, J. P., 9
Garver, R. B., 391
Garver-Apgar, C. E., 181
Gates, G. S., 69
Gatewood, J. B., 229
Gatti, F. M., 170
Gattis, M., 328
Gawley, T., 175
Gee, J., 163
Geen, R. G., 97
Geis, F., 143, 292
Geiselman, R. E., 155
Geldbach, K. M., 274
Gellert, E., 173
Gentilucci, M., 221
Gergle, D., 418
Gerstman, L. J., 221
Gerwing, J., 218
Gesn, P. R., 73, 235
Gianetto, R. M., 18, 385
Gibbins, K., 191
Gier, J. A., 235
Gifford, R., 259, 311, 381, 382
Gil, S., 99
Gilbert, T., 200
Gildersleeve, K. A., 362
Gillen, B., 159
Gillentine, J., 233
Gillespie, D. L., 371
Gillis, J. S., 65, 307
Gilovich, T., 110, 191
Giner-Sorolla, R., 293
Givens, D. B., 26, 362
Givhan, R., 186
Glanville, D. N., 75, 76
Glasgow, G. M., 347
Glenberg, A. M., 301
Gochman, I. R., 132
Goffman, E., 124, 298, 374, 397, 398
Göksun, T., 221
Goldbeck, T., 346
Goldinger, S. D., 319
Goldin-Meadow, S., 217, 218, 222
Goldman, M., 140
Goldman-Eisler, F., 23, 351, 352, 353
Goldsmith, L. H., 9
Goldstein, A. G., 199, 247
Golinkoff, R. M., 221
Golosheykin, S., 43
Gonzalez, A., 99
Good, E., 178
Goodboy, A. K., 407
Goodfellow, S., 75
Goodfriend, W., 107
Goodman, N., 173
Goodwin, C., 216
Goodwyn, S., 201
Gopnik, A., 39
Goranson, R. E., 102
Gorawara-Bhat, R., 412
Gordijn, E. H., 355
Gordon, A. H., 385
Gordon, I., 340
Gordon, K. A., 36
Goren, A., 404
Gorham, J., 191
Gortmaker, S. L., 173
Gosling, S. D., 66, 107, 192
Gosselin, P., 74, 273
Graham, J. A., 161, 165, 218
Graham, L. T., 107
Graham, S. A., 221
Grahe, J. E., 65, 307, 326
Gramata, J. F., 334
Grammer, K., 167, 360, 361
Grandey, A. A., 292
Granhag, P. A., 390
Gray, A. W., 167
Gray, H. M., 10, 79
Grayson, B., 26
Green, A. M., 113
Green, E., 390
Green, J. R., 340
Greenbaum, P. E., 235
Greenberg, R., 39, 41, 61
Greenberg, S., 411
Greene, J. O., 308, 311, 353
NAME INDEX 497
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Gregson-Curtis, K., 167
Greitemeyer, T., 112
Grewal, D., 262
Grieser, D. L., 339
Griffin, A. M., 2004
Griffin, J. H., 160
Griffin, W., 106, 141
Griffiths, V., 189
Grimshaw, G. M., 174
Grinspan, D., 62
Griskevicius, V., 190
Gross, J. J., 80
Grosseibl, M., 312
Grossman, R. B., 33
Gruber, J., 71
Gruendl, M., 165
Grunau, R. V. E., 39
Guadagno, R. E., 189
Guastella, A. J., 314
Gudykunst, W. B., 408
Guéguen, N., 112, 163, 243, 364
Guellai, B., 37
Guerrero, L. K., 234, 235, 365, 368, 385, 408
Gumpert, P., 316
Gunnoe, J., 236
Gunns, R. E., 26
Gurney, D. J., 216
Gutowski, K. A., 286
Gutsell, J. N., 222
Guvenc, D., 109
Guzman-Garcia, A., 245
Ha, T., 158
Haber, G. M., 93
Hacker, F., 200
Hadar, U., 8, 216, 221
Hadjikhani, N., 200
Hadji-Michael, M., 174
Hadjistavropoulos, T., 413
Hager, J. C., 289
Haggard, E. A., 265
Haight, N., 155
Hakky, U. M., 138
Halberstadt, A. G., 76, 83, 139, 277, 317,
375, 383, 385, 386, 387, 398, 409
Halberstadt, J., 79, 167
Hale, J. L., 17, 368
Halin, N., 113
Hall, A. E., 43
Hall, E. T., 3, 98, 123, 182, 359, 408
Hall, J. A., 17, 25, 28, 59, 60, 61, 66, 67, 68,
71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82,
236, 256, 264, 276, 285, 296, 307,
311, 313, 328, 334, 338, 343, 353,
371, 382, 384, 385, 386, 404, 412,
414, 415
Hall, J. K., 302
Hallahan, M., 66
Hamermesh, D. S., 159
Hamilton, J., 191
Hamilton, T. E., 157
Hampton, J. A., 242
Hancks, M., 378
Hancock, J. T., 156
Hancock, P. A., 112
Hanlon, R. E., 221
Hannum, J. W., 246
Hansen, C. H., 200
Hansen, R. D., 200
Hanson, K. N., 159
Hanyu, K., 113
Hanzal, A., 235, 250
Harcar, V., 398
Hare, A., 144
Hargie, O., 63
Hargreaves, D. J., 111, 112
Harker, L., 259
Harkins, S., 105
Harkness, K. L., 79
Harlow, H. F., 61, 234
Harms, L. S., 339
Harnsberger, J. D., 339
Harper, R. G., 369
Harrar, V., 108
Harrigan, J. A., 74, 75, 80, 255, 284, 334,
344, 345, 412
Harris, C. R., 242
Harris, M. B., 193
Harris, M. J., 75, 393, 406, 407
Harris, P. B., 108
Harris, R. J., 193
Harrison, A. A., 177
Harrison, N. A., 320
Harrison, R. P., 216
Harrison-Speake, K., 232
Hart, A. J., 291
Hart, R. P., 21, 377, 378
Hartman, J. S., 345
Hartwig, M., 390
Harwood, K., 411
Hasegawa, T., 313
Haselton, M. G., 362, 363
Haskard, K. B., 343
Hassin, R. R., 167, 277
Hastorf, A., 173
Hatfield, E., 154, 161, 226, 288
Hatri, A., 313
Hauser, M. D., 341
Havard, I., 217
Havas, D. A., 286
Haviland, J. M., 73
Havlicek, J., 51
Hawighorst, M., 181
Hawk, S., 205
Hawley, C. W., 98
Hayes, C. W., 385
Hays, E. R., 319
Hays, R. D., 414
Haythorn, W. W., 124
Hazlett, R. L., 400
Hazlett, S. Y., 400
He, Y., 319
Head, M., 111
Heatherton, T. F., 173
Heaven, L., 255
Heaver, B., 319
Hebl, M. R., 173
Hecht, M. A., 21, 26, 68, 385, 386
Hecker, S., 25
Heekeren, H. R., 313
Hegley, D., 38
Heider, K., 55, 56
Heidt, P., 245
Heilman, M. E., 160
Heimann, L., 82
Heine, K., 154
Heintz, M., 51
Heisel, A. D., 43
Heltman, K., 386
Hemphill, A., 62
Hemsley, G. D., 317
Henderson, Z., 228
Henrich, J., 306
Henry, C., 399
Henry, D., 403
Henry, J. D., 74
Hensley, W. E., 187, 320
Henson, A., 290, 309
Herbert, B. G., 165, 417
Heritage, J., 343
Herman, C. P., 175, 186
Hermans, E., 312
Hernandez-Reif, M., 232, 246
Herren, K. A., 114
Herrera, P., 274
Herrero, C., 390
Hertenstein, M. J., 231, 232, 242
Hertz, M., 313
Herzog, H., 246
Heslin, R., 231, 235, 238, 243, 245, 250,
370, 371
Hess, E. H., 24, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322
Hess, U., 273, 274, 286
Hetherington, A., 246
Hewett, K., 282
Hewitt, J., 138
Heywood, S., 218
Hickey, C. B., 316
Hietanen, J. K., 288, 306, 314
Higgins, E. T., 154, 336
Hill, J., 313
Hill, R. A., 51, 109
Hilton, I., 248
Hines, T., 109
Hinsz, V. B., 157, 292
Hirschman, L., 338
Hirsh-Pasek, K., 221
Hochman, S. H., 189
Hodgins, H., 76, 335
Hoffman, G. E., 233
Hoffman, S. P., 253
Hofstede, G., 409
Hogan, D., 349
Hogg, E., 253
Hoicka, E., 348
Holcom, M. L., 312
498 NAME INDEX
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Holland, R. W., 206, 307
Hollenstein, T., 307
Holler, J., 217, 222
Hollien, H., 330, 331, 332, 391
Holmes, J. G., 338
Holmes, R. M., 232
Homel, R., 131
Honeycutt, J. M., 111
Hong, J., 155
Hopkins, I. M., 162, 314
Hopper, C. H., 311
Hopyan-Misakyan, T. M., 36
Horai, J., 160
Horgan, T. G., 60, 126, 135, 222, 414
Hornik, J., 241, 243
Hoss, R. A., 154
Hostetter, A. B., 200, 217, 218, 222
Houser, M. L., 407
Howard, A., 318
Howells, L. T., 143
Huang, R.-H., 112
Hubbard, A. S. E., 173, 249
Hudson, S. M., 26
Hugenberg, K., 282, 300
Hughes, K. R., 337
Hughes, S. M., 154, 335
Hummert, M. L., 339
Humphrey, T. M., 174
Humphries, D. A., 261
Hurley, C. M., 388
Hurley, R. S. E., 313
Husain, G., 63
Hutt, C., 313
Hutton, S. B., 302
Hwang, H. S., 277
Hyatt, E. M., 109
Hygge, S., 113
Hyman, R., 251
Iaccino, J. F., 9
Ickes, W., 71, 73, 325
Idsardi, W. J., 337
Imes, S., 246
Ingersoll, B., 72
Ingham, R., 297
Ingram, R. E., 320
Innes-Ker, A. H., 79
Inzlicht, M., 222
Irish, J. T., 338, 385
Iritani, B., 292, 398
Isaac, A., 313
Isaacowitz, D. M., 74
Isaacs, F. S., 265
Itkin, S., 365
Iverson, J. M., 222
Izard, C. E., 38, 55, 61, 73, 76, 83, 266, 268,
278, 285, 287, 291
Jack, R. E., 282
Jackson, H. J., 76
Jacob, S., 180
Jacobson, J. A., 79
Jacobson, J. W., 250
Jacobson, L., 23, 406
Jacobson, M. B., 162
Jacobson, R., 206
Jaffe, J., 299
Jahncke, H., 113
James, J. W., 128
Jamieson, J. P., 105
Jamieson, K. H., 401
Janda, L. H., 178
Janisse, M. P., 319
Jansen, K. J., 292
Jansen, N. J. M., 331
Janssen, D., 199
Jarvis, J. P., 104
Jaskolka, A. R., 242
Jasper, J. D., 99
Javaras, K. N., 100
Jaworski, A., 355
Jaywant, A., 341
Jean, A. D. L., 233
Jeffords, J., 247
Jenkins, C., 385
Jensen, J. V., 355
Jerry, D., 409
Johannsen, L., 245
Johansson, D., 300
Johnson, B. C., 318, 338
Johnson, C., 371
Johnson, D., 409
Johnson, G. A., 104
Johnson, H. G., 205, 210
Johnson, K. R., 383
Johnson, M. H., 37, 286
Johnson, M. L., 235, 244
Johnson, P. A., 173
Johnson, T., 216, 217, 298, 378
Johnston, L., 26, 224
Johnston, R. E., 104, 266
Jokela, M., 158
Jolliffe, T., 303, 304, 313
Jonas, R., 285
Jones, A. I., 360
Jones, B. C., 158, 164, 167, 300
Jones, B. T., 164
Jones, J., 82
Jones, M. E., 77
Jones, S., 236
Jones, S. B., 136
Jones, S. E., 241, 243
Jones, S. M., 365, 368
Jones, T. S., 138, 235
Jones-Gotman, M., 181
Jordahl, H., 405
Jordan, B. D., 181
Jorgenson, D. O., 104, 292
Jouhar, A. J., 161, 165
Joule, R., 245
Jourard, S. M., 236, 408
Judd, C. M., 337
Judge, P. G., 130
Judge, T. A., 177
Juette, A., 360
Juslin, P. N., 326, 341, 342
Kagan, J., 296
Kagas, D. K., 253
Kaiser, S., 273
Kalick, S. M., 157
Kalinowski, J., 310
Kallgren, C. A., 101
Kalma, A., 299, 319, 311
Kamboj, S., 78
Kanetkar, V., 106
Kang, M., 398
Kappeler, P. M., 193
Kaprio, J., 43
Karabenick, S. A., 173
Kartus, S., 236
Kaschak, M. P., 363
Kashy, D. A., 388
Kasmar, J. V., 106
Kasprzak, M., 180
Kaswan, J. W., 17, 18, 325
Katz, N. R., 343
Kaufman, D., 243
Kawakami, K., 318
Kaya, N., 124, 125
Kearney, P., 364
Keating, C. F., 371, 386, 405
Keating, J. P., 132
Kees, W., 22, 28, 91
Kegl, J., 13
Keizer, K., 101
Kelling, G. L., 101
Kelly, D. J., 37
Kelly, I. W., 104
Kelly, J. R., 250, 311, 372
Kelly, S. D., 9
Keltner, D., 66, 71, 242, 259, 266, 273,
284, 369
Kemper, D., 164
Kemper, K. J., 246
Kendler, K. S., 42
Kendon, A., 14, 23, 24, 199, 201, 202, 205,
211, 220, 221, 229, 297, 374
Kendrick, K., 313
Kendrick, T., 405
Kennedy, C. W., 371
Kenner, A. N., 255, 256
Kenny, D. A., 71
Kenrick, D. T., 102, 104, 158
Kenwood, C., 216
Kerestes, A. M., 232
Kerkstra, A., 386
Kernan, J. B., 160
Kerr, C. E., 245
Kerssen-Griep, J., 365
Kerssens, J. J., 300
Kerstholt, J. H., 331
Kessler, J. B., 161
Kezuka, E., 251
Khan, S. A., 51, 200
Kibler, R. J., 347
NAME INDEX 499
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Kieffer, S. C., 292
Kiesler, S., 417
Kilbreath, C. S., 221
Kim, D. A., 285
Kim, E., 209
Kim, H., 200
Kim, J., 209
Kim, S., 93
Kim, S. I., 209
Kimata, L., 155
Kimbara, I., 226
Kimes, D. D., 292, 393
Kimes, S. E., 142
Kimura, D., 221
King, L. A., 285
King, M. J., 140
King, P. E., 348
Kingstone, A., 306
Kirk, E., 221
Kirkendol, S. E., 388, 390
Kita, S., 200, 212
Kitchen, D. M., 341
Klavina, L., 176
Kleck, R. E., 82, 140, 155, 173, 273, 285,
303, 306, 310
Kleinke, C. L., 177, 296, 307, 370
Kleisner, K., 296
Kliemann, D., 313
Kline, L. M., 137
Klinger, H. N., 347
Knapp, J. R., 140, 173
Knapp, M. L., 21, 24, 25, 28, 84, 147, 148,
163, 211, 221, 350, 360, 367, 374,
376, 377, 378, 389, 391, 392, 418
Kneidinger, L. M., 235, 249
Knoblich, G., 300
Knoth, R., 229
Knower, F. H., 73
Knowles, E. S., 128, 129
Knowles, M., 75
Knutson, B., 259
Ko, S. J., 66, 107, 337
Koch, C., 319
Koch, S. C., 301, 306, 307
Koc
!
nar, T., 296
Koeppel, L. B., 363
Koerner, A. F., 67
Koestner, R., 72
Koff, E., 47, 48, 50, 221, 286, 289, 338
Kohli, N., 126
Koivumaki, J. H., 23, 78, 83
Kollock, P., 371
Konasewich, P. A., 226
Koneya, M., 92, 93
Koo, J., 290
Koppelaar, L., 102
Korn, S. J., 173
Kornreich, C., 77, 412
Koskenvuo, M., 43
Kotsch, W. E., 291
Kotz, S. A., 325
Koudenburg, N., 355
Koulack, D., 162
Koutlak, R., 9
Kowal, S., 353
Kozak, M. N., 75
Kozel, F. A., 391
Krabbenhoft, M. A., 349
Kralik, J. D., 51
Kramer, C., 338
Kraus, M. W., 66, 369
Kraus, S., 402
Krauss, D., 8
Krauss, R. M., 217, 218, 221, 337, 339
Kraut, R. E., 104, 266, 418
Kreiman, J., 331
Kretschmer, E., 22
Kreuz, R. J., 416
Krieger, D., 245
Kring, A. M., 274, 385, 413
Krivonos, P. D., 21, 374
Kruck, K., 360
Kruger, D. J., 158
Kruger, J., 325, 417
Krumhuber, E. G., 273, 286, 291
Krupat, E., 100
Kruse, L., 301, 306, 307
Kucharska-Pietura, K., 344
Kues, J. R., 255
Kuhl, P. K., 39, 339
Kuhn, G., 300
Kulka, R. A., 161
Kumin, L., 201
Kunz, M., 263
Kurtz, D. L., 176, 398
Kurz, E., 398
Kutzner, F., 160
Kuwabara, M., 277
Kylliâinen, A., 314
Lacey, C., 188
Ladefoged, J., 331
Ladefoged, P., 331
LaFrance, B. H., 43
LaFrance, M., 25, 223, 385, 386
Laird, J. D., 1974
Lakin, J. L., 10, 223
Lakoff, G., 286
Lakoff, R., 338
Lalljee, M. G., 351, 353
Lamb, T. A., 1981
Lamy, L., 112
Lancelot, C., 175
Lancuba, V., 186
Landry-Pester, J. C., 336
Langlois, J. H., 154, 155, 161, 165
Lanzetta, J. T., 82, 285
Lapakko, D., 324
Larios, H., 111
Larrance, D. T., 80, 81
Larrimore, D., 246
Larsen, R. J., 167, 312, 385
Larson, C. E., 147, 148
Larson, C. M., 362
Larson, S., 71
Laser, P. S., 167
Lass, N. J., 337
Latner, J. D., 173
Laukka, P., 341, 342, 344, 345
Lavine, H., 404
Lavrakas, P. J., 174
Lawrence, S. G., 190, 290
Lawrie, D. A., 214
Lazar, M., 201
Leal, S., 390
Leaper, C., 338
Leathers, D. G., 16
Leckman, J. F., 340
Lederman, S. J., 242
Lee, I., 314
Lee, K., 316
Lee, L., 155
Lee, S. A., 408
Lee, V., 82, 267, 268
Leeb, R. T., 313
Leeland, K. B., 60
Leffler, A., 371
Lefkowitz, M., 189
Legault, L., 222
Legault, M., 74, 273
Lehman, S. J., 71
Lehmiller, J. J., 250
Leigh, T. W., 348
Leipold, W. E., 139
Lelwica, M., 73
Lemery, C. R., 226, 267
Lenihan, M. G., 243
Lenneberg, E., 30
Lennon, E., 73
Leonard, G., 98
LePoire, B. A., 368
Leppanen, J. M., 306
Leppard, W., 292
LeResche, L., 270, 413
Lerner, R. M., 140, 173
Lesko, W. A., 104
Lester, D., 114, 177
Lester, P. M., 418
Letzring, T. D., 75
Leuschner, H., 369
Levav, J., 241
Levenson, R. W., 56, 285, 288
Levesque, M. J., 71
Levine, L. R., 189
Levine, R., 98, 99
Levine, T. R., 43, 389, 391
Levine, W. J., 51
Levinson, S. C., 355
Levy Paluck, E., 385, 386
Lewandowski, G. W., Jr., 163
Lewis, M. D., 61, 276, 391
Lewis, R. J., 241, 249
Lewis, S. A., 156
Lewy, A. J., 113
Leyden, J. J., 181
Li, J., 142
500 NAME INDEX
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Li, N. P., 190
Liebal, K., 44
Lieber, A. L., 104
Lieberman, D. A., 74
Liebler, A., 66, 192, 382
Lieblich, A. K., 261
Light, N. M., 119
Likowski, K. U., 289
Lilienfeld, S. O., 71
Liljenquist, K., 98
Lind, E. A., 338
Lindberg, T., 173, 331
Lindell, A. K., 289
Lindenberg, S., 101
Lindström, P., 181
Linklater, W. L., 174
Lipets, M. S., 78, 83
Lipowicz, A., 176
Lippa, R. A., 67, 333, 382
Lippman, L. G., 182
Lipshultz, L. I., 176
Little, A. C., 168, 300
Livant, W. P., 353
Livingstone, V., 74
Llobera, J., 128
Lockard, J., 292
Lodge, M., 404
Loehr, D., 219
Loewenstein, G., 155
Lohmann, A., 107
Lombardi, D. H., 154
Londerville, J., 106
Long, B., 372
Longo, L. C., 164
Lonsdale, D., 235
Lord, T., 180
Love, L. R., 17, 325, 385
Lucarelli, M. J., 286
Luce, G. G., 99
Luck, K. S., 334
Lumsden, J., 224
Lundberg, J. K., 193
Lundell, T. L., 338
Lundqvist, D., 278
Lundqvist, L. O., 274
Lundström, J. N., 181
Lundy, B., 290
Luo, S., 156
Lustig, M. W., 234
Lyman, S. M., 125
Lynch, M., 74
Lynch, R., 270
Lyons, P. M., 161
MacDonald, C. J., 73
MacFarlane, W. W., 102
Macintyre, S., 131
MacLean, J., 189
Macrae, C. N., 224, 228, 307
Maddux, J. E., 160
Madey, S. F., 164
Madson, L., 384
Maestripieri, D., 159
Magee, J. J., 390
Magen, E., 226
Magnusson, A. K., 33, 376
Mahl, G. E., 330
Mahl, G. F., 345
Mahoney, J. M., 243
Main, J. C., 300
Major, B., 160, 371
Makhijani, M. G., 164
Malatesta, C., 38, 285
Malloy, D., 229
Malloy, T. E., 71
Mandal, M. K., 76, 82
Mandisodza, A. N., 404
Maner, J. K., 159, 362, 381
Mann, S., 390
Mannarelli, T., 66, 107
Manning, J. T., 174
Mansell, W., 312
Manstead, A. S. R., 73, 273
Manusov, V., 28, 364, 365
Maple, T. L., 235, 249
Marberger, C., 165
Marche, T. A., 338
Marcus, D. K., 71
Marentette, P. F., 206, 222
Mares, S. H. W., 161
Maresh, M., 407
Margolin, J., 79
Margolis, C., 334
Marier, P., 341
Maringer, M., 286
Markel, N. N., 338, 340
Markham, R., 74
Markson, L., 301
Marmurek, H. H. C., 106
Marsh, A. A., 75, 77
Marsh, P., 205
Marshall, L. A., 43
Martin, A., 364, 384
Martin, L. L., 287
Martin, R., 200
Martineau, J., 320
Martins, Y., 181
Maruyama, G., 348
Marx, B. S., 118
Masataka, N., 335
Masiak, M., 344
Masip, J., 390
Maslow, A. H., 23, 106
Mason, M. F., 307
Mason, M. J., 131
Mast, J. F., 18, 60, 72, 73, 112, 256, 264,
296, 299, 325, 369, 371, 372, 412
Matarazzo, J. D., 354
Mathews, A., 312
Mathie, V. A., 167
Matsumoto, D., 56, 67, 69, 262, 272, 273,
276, 277, 286, 287, 289
Mattes, K., 404
Matthews, G., 59
Matthews, J. L., 292
Mattila, A. S., 292
Mauritzen, J. H., 106
Maxwell, L. E., 97, 131
Mayer, J. D., 6, 59
Mazloff, D., 339
Mazur, A., 370
McAndrew, F. T., 112
McArthur, L. Z., 168
McBrayer, D., 255
McBride, G., 128
McBurney, D. H., 174
McCabe, M. P., 177
McCallister, L., 386
McCarthy, A., 316
McClave, E., 200
McClearn, G. E., 43
McClelland, A., 174
McClintock, M. K., 180
McClure, E. B., 73, 75
McCormick, N. B., 360
McCornack, S. A., 389, 391
McCown, E. J., 113
McCreary, D. R., 175
McCroskey, J. C., 147, 148
McCullough, K. E., 17
McCune, K., 354
McDaniel, E., 234, 236, 409
McDowall, J. J., 229
McGee, G., 77, 127, 405, 412, 413
McGeehan, P., 127
McGehee, F., 331
McGuire, T. W., 417
McIntosh, D. N., 242
McKeegan, A. M., 192
McKendrick, J., 112
McLarney-Vesotski, A. R., 74
McLaughlin, F. J., 180
McLean, I., 411
McLear, P. M., 174
McNeill, D., 14, 17, 201, 212, 221, 222
Mears, C., 61
Meeker, F. B., 307
Meer, J., 113
Mefferd, A. S., 340
Mehrabian, A., 15, 17, 28, 81, 97, 122, 307,
324, 348, 364, 365, 370
Meier, J. A., 336
Meineri, S., 243
Meisels, M., 141, 173
Meissner, K., 99
Meissner, M., 202
Melby, C., 363
Mellor, D., 177
Meltzoff, A. N., 39, 40, 93
Mendel, L. L., 113
Mendelsohn, G. A., 157
Mennis, J., 131
Menon, E., 37
Merlo, S., 352
Mermillod, M., 286
Merten, J., 73
NAME INDEX 501
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Mertz, T., 401
Messaris, P., 418
Messick, D., 310
Miceli, R., 32, 35
Michael, G., 174, 201, 380
Michel, G., 38
Middlemist, R. D., 128
Mileff, M., 200
Miles, L. K., 224, 228
Miller, A. L., 291
Miller, E. H. A., 51
Miller, L. H., 385
Miller, N., 348
Miller, R. D., 181
Miller, R. E., 61, 67, 80, 81, 285
Miller, R. J., 354
Miller, S. L., 362
Miller, T. A., 408
Mills, J., 160
Milmoe, S., 343
Mintz, N. L., 23, 106
Mirsky, I. A., 61
Miserandino, M., 298
Mitani, J., 44
Mitchell, J., 75
Mitchell, P. B., 314
Mitchell, W. J., 418
Mitchell, Z., 218
Miwa, Y., 113
Miyake, K., 335
Mobbs, N., 311
Modigliani, A., 316
Mogg, K., 312
Moll, K. L., 332
Molzow, I., 312
Monahan, P. J., 337
Monetta, L., 325
Monin, B., 300
Monk, R., 114, 116
Montagne-Miller, Y., 363
Montagre, M., 106
Montagu, M. F. A., 24, 233
Monteleone, G. T., 391
Montepare, J. M., 199
Moore, C. H., 160
Moore, C. I., 245
Moore, J. D., 180
Moore, M. K., 39, 40, 61
Moore, M. M., 53, 360, 362
Moore-Schoenmakers, K., 335
Moreault, D., 175
Moreland, R. L., 163
Morgan, C. J. A., 78
Morgan, M. J., 302
Morrel-Samuels, P., 221
Morrier, M., 412, 413
Morris, D., 201, 205, 231, 237, 238, 240, 253
Morris, M. E., 66, 107
Morris, P., 189
Morris, T. L., 191
Morrison, K., 391
Morrow, B., 186, 331
Morsella, E., 337
Mortezaie, M., 363
Morton, J. B., 325
Mostow, A., 75, 76
Moszkowski, R. J., 233
Motowidlo, S. J., 349
Mottet, T. P., 408
Motyka, S., 362
Mouton, J., 189
Mowat, D., 74
Moyer, C. A., 246
Mueser, K. T., 76
Mühlberger, A., 289
Mulac, A., 336, 338
Mulick, J. A., 250
Mullen, B., 289, 401
Mullett, J., 16, 226, 267
Munn, N. L., 277
Murnen, S. K., 184
Murphy, J. D., 311, 372
Murphy, N. A., 60, 71, 72, 73, 256, 264,
296, 382
Murphy, S. T., 293, 366
Murray, L. K., 109
Muscanell, N. L., 189
Must, A., 173
Myers, M. B., 26
Myers, P. N., 178
Myrick, R., 118
Naccari, N., 160
Nadeau, J., 173
Nadig, A., 314
Nagel, L., 38
Nannberg, J. C., 243
Napieralski, L. P., 310
Narvaez, M., 409
Nations, C., 363
Naumann, L. P., 66, 192
Neidenthal, P. M., 286
Nelson, N. L., 344
Nesdale, D., 66
Neta, M., 277
Netzley, S. B., 398
Neumann, R., 288, 342
Nevid, J. S., 158
Nevill, D., 370
Newlands, A., 299
Newman, J. P., 42, 77
Nezlek, J., 157
Ng, Z., 325, 417
Nguyen, M. L., 249, 250
Nguyen, N., 337
Nguyen, T. D., 249, 250
Nicholls, M. E. R., 289
Niedenthal, P., 79, 99, 286, 366
Nielsen, G., 361
Niesta, D., 51, 108, 110
Niit, T., 55
Nilolaou, V., 344
Nilsen, W. J., 244
Nind, L. K., 228
Nip, I. S. B., 340
Nisbett, R. E., 397
Nishitani, M., 411
Nishitani, S., 37
Nocera, C. C., 250
Nohara, M., 338
Noll, R. B., 175
Noller, P., 67, 82, 309, 387
North, A. C., 111, 112
Notarius, C. I., 285
Nowicki, S., 62, 63, 68, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82,
344, 400
Nuessle, W., 310
Nurmoja, M., 168
OBrien, C. E., 387
OBrien, T. P., 390
OConnell, D. C., 353
OConnell, D. M., 284
OConnell, M., 189
OConnor, J. J. M., 341
OHair, D., 363
ONan, B. A., 164
ONeal, E. C., 140
OShaughnessy, M., 205
OSullivan, L. F., 362
OSullivan, M., 271, 274, 388, 390
Ober, C., 180
Ochsner, K. N., 286
Ogletree, S. M., 292
Ogston, W. D., 219
Okdie, B. M., 189
Okubo, M., 142
Older, J., 245
Olivola, C. Y., 404, 405
Olp, J. J., 181
Olson, J. M., 384
Olson, K., 339
Olson, M. A., 255
Orr, D. B., 348
Oskamp, S., 175
Ost, J., 291
Oster, H., 38, 55, 261
Ostwald, P. F., 414
Otero, S. C., 319
Ounsted, C., 313
Oveis, C., 71
Overbeek, G., 158
Owen, J., 250
Owen, P. M., 233
Owen, R. C., 51
Ozcaliskan, S., 222
Ozonoff, S., 314
Pack, S. J., 386
Paepke, A. J., 181
Pandey, R., 76, 82
Pansu, P., 274
Papesh, M. H., 319
Papsin, B. C., 36
Parish, A., 173, 184
Park, H. S., 389, 391, 409
502 NAME INDEX
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Parker, J., 325
Parks, M. R., 392
Parmley, M., 366
Parr, L. A., 51
Partala, T., 319
Pascalis, O., 37
Paterson, K. B., 301
Patrick, C. J., 71, 270, 413
Patterson, A. H., 132
Patterson, M. L., 24, 28, 83, 128, 141, 243,
308, 360, 367, 369, 370
Pattison, J. E., 241
Pattison, P. E., 76
Pauker, K., 317, 399
Pauli, P., 289, 312
Paulmann, S., 325
Pause, B. M., 181
Pawlowski, B., 176, 334, 336
Peace, V., 224
Pear, T. H., 337
Pearson, J. C., 338
Pearson, N. O., 153
Pedersen, N. L., 43
Peery, C., 299
Pell, M. D., 325, 341
Pelligrini, R. F., 108
Pendell, S. D., 402
Penke, L., 360
Penn, D. L., 76
Pennebaker, J. W., 80, 164
Penton-Voak, I. S., 158, 167, 168
Perdue, V. P., 233
Perez, J. E., 412
Perilloux, C., 190
Perks, T., 175
Perper, T., 360, 362
Perrett, D. I., 158, 168
Perrin, J. N., 173
Perron, M., 74, 273
Persico, N., 177
Pertschuk, M., 156, 174, 177, 178
Peskin, S. H., 26
Peters, M., 341
Peterson, A. M., 246
Peterson, C., 338
Peterson, R. T., 400
Petitto, L. A., 222
Petrovich, S. B., 319
Petty, R. E., 360, 397
Pfau, M., 348, 360
Pflug, J., 410
Pfungst, O., 252
Phelps, F. G., 301
Philhower, G. L., 167, 411
Philippot, P., 77, 395, 405, 412
Phillips, B., 74, 216
Phillips, L. H., 74
Phillips, R. D., 74
Phillips, S. T., 105
Philpott, S. B., 202
Phinney, M., 108
Pickens, J., 290
Pickett, C. L., 75
Pika, S., 44, 206
Pike, K. M., 385
Pillsworth, E. G., 362, 363
Pine, K. J., 216, 218, 221
Ping, R., 218
Pinheiro, A. P., 328
Pinker, S., 30
Piper, J., 164
Piqueras-Fiszman, B., 108
Pitcairn, T. K., 32, 34, 51
Pitner, R. O., 101
Pittam, J., 341, 344, 346
Pitterman, H., 63
Piven, J., 313
Place, S. S., 360
Plank, S. B., 101
Platt, B., 78
Platt, M. L., 51
Plax, T. G., 191, 319, 364
Plomin, R., 40, 43
Ploutz-Snyder, R., 68
Plumb, I., 313
Poggi, I., 205
Poliet, T. V., 176
Pölkki, M., 184
Pollak, S. D., 76, 325
Polt, J. M., 318
Pomerantz, S. D., 326
Pönkänen, L. M., 306
Popelka, G. R., 218
Porter, N., 143
Porter, R. H., 37, 180
Porter, S., 390
Portnoy, E. J., 173
Pöschl, S., 416
Postlewaite, A., 177
Postmes, T., 355
Pound, N., 168
Powell, J. L., 243, 403
Powers, S. R., 32, 52
Poyatos, F., 327, 330
Prasad, A. B., 76, 82
Prebor, L. D., 338
Preti, G., 181
Preuschoft, S., 49
Prince, L. M., 81
Prinsen, T. J., 398
Prkachin, K. M., 38, 39, 270, 413
Prososki, A. R., 325
Pryor, B., 26
Puccinelli, N. M., 262
Purvis, J. A., 311
Putnam, L. L., 386
Putnam, P., 312
Quitkin, F., 253
Ragsdale, J. D., 410
Rampey, M. S., 105
Ramsey, J. L., 154
Ramsey, S. L., 312
Rand, C. S., 17, 343
Randall, D., 405
Rankin-Williams, E., 398
Ransberger, V. M., 102
Rantala, L. M., 124
Rantala, M. J., 184
Rapson, R. L., 226, 288
Raskin, A., 400
Raste, Y., 313
Rauscher, F. H., 217, 353
Ravina, B., 353
Ravizza, S. M., 353
Rawdon, V. A., 409
Ray, C., 236
Ray, G. B., 364
Reardon, K. K., 389
Reby, D., 334
Redding, W. C., 175
Redican, W. K., 47, 261
Reed, C. L., 242
Reed, L. I., 290
Reeves, D. L., 233
Regan, P. C., 409
Reich, A. R., 332
Reid, A., 186
Reimer, H. M., 29, 75
Reingen, P. H., 160
Reinhard, M.-A., 390
Reis, H. T., 157, 371
Reiss, M., 143
Rejskind, F. G., 313
Remland, M. S., 138, 235
Rempala, D., 74
Renner, B., 200
Renninger, L. A., 361
Reno, R. R., 101
Rentfrow, P. J., 66, 192
Reznick, J. S., 228
Rhodes, B. C., 154
Rhodes, G., 31, 159, 165, 166, 167, 168,
149, 341, 411
Ricciardelli, L. A., 177
Ricciardelli, R., 184
Ricci-Bitti, P. E., 32, 35, 55
Richards, J. M., 80
Richardson, D., 300
Richardson, M. J., 224
Richardson, S. A., 155, 173
Richeson, J. A., 62, 65, 67, 71, 79, 276
Richmond, V. P., 406
Riddell, R. P., 411
Riding, D., 335
Rifkin, A., 253
Rigato, S., 37
Riggio, H. R., 72, 404, 405
Riggio, R. E., 25, 72, 80, 81, 82, 163, 259,
404, 405, 412
Rigo, T. G., 74
Rima, B. N., 177
Rimer, S., 116
Rinck, C. M., 233
Rinn, W. E., 259, 268, 289
NAME INDEX 503
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Riordan, M. A., 416
Ritter, J. M., 154
Ritter, K., 403
Roach, K. D., 191
Roberts, A., 178
Roberts, J. V., 175
Roberts, K. P., 390
Roberts, R. D., 59
Roberts, S. C., 51
Roberts, T.-A., 399
Robertson, D. A., 301
Robertson, T., 142
Roberts-Wilbur, J., 301
Robinson, J. D., 412
Robinson, L. F., 371
Robinson, S. L., 125
Robinson, W. P., 391
Robnett, R. D., 338
Robson, S. K. A., 142
Rochester, S. R., 351
Rockquemore, K. A., 191
Rodriguez, J. L., 364
Roe, L., 214
Roesch, E. B., 273
Roese, N. J., 384
Rogalski, K., 218
Rogan, R. G., 17
Rogers, P. L., 17, 59, 343
Rogers, R. W., 160
Rogers, W. T., 218
Roggman, L. A., 154, 165
Rohe, W., 132
Rohleder, L., 77
Rohles, R. H., Jr., 96
Rohner, J., 312
Roman, L. A., 390
Romantshik, O., 37
Ronald, L., 155
Roney, J. R., 159
Rosa, E., 246, 370
Rosa, L., 246
Rosen, B. K., 78
Rosenbaum, R., 22
Rosenberg, A., 296
Rosenberg, E. L., 413
Rosenblum, L. A., 61
Rosenfeld, H. M., 141, 143, 223, 229, 235,
350, 378
Rosenfeld, J. P., 39
Rosenfeld, L. B., 191, 236
Rosenthal, N. E., 71, 72, 113
Rosenthal, R., 17, 23, 27, 28, 59, 63, 65, 67,
68, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83,
222, 228, 276, 290, 343, 344, 388,
390, 393, 406, 407, 412
Rosip, J. C., 68, 72
Rosse, R. B., 313
Roter, D. L., 17, 71, 328, 343, 385, 414
Roth, V., 116
Rothman, H., 339
Rotter, A., 81
Rotter, G. S., 73
Rotter, N. G., 73
Rottmann, L., 156
Rotton, J., 102, 104
Rounds, J., 246
Rowland-Morin, P. A., 317
Rozin, P., 178
Ruback, R. B., 126
Rubenstein, A. J., 154
Rubešová, A., 296
Rubin, Z., 307
Rudd, J. E., 43
Ruesch, J., 22, 28, 91
Ruffini, G., 128
Ruffman, T., 74
Ruiz-Belda, M., 266, 267, 268
Rumbough, T., 417
Russell, B. L., 385
Russell, F., 180
Russell, J. A., 57, 266, 268, 278, 282, 344
Russell, M. J., 181
Russell, R. L., 77
Russo, N., 128, 129, 144
Rutherford, M. D., 77, 344
Rutter, D. R., 296, 299
Ryan, A., 391
Ryan, S., 113
Rytting, M., 231, 243
Sabbagh, M. A., 79
Sacco, D. F., 273, 300
Sachau, D., 108
Sachs, G. A., 412
Sacks, D., 253
Sacks, O., 77
Saeed, L., 176
Saitta, M. B., 398
Saitz, R. L., 205
Sakkalou, E., 328
Saks, M. J., 27
Saladin, M., 162
Salinas, C., 163
Salmon, K., 218
Salovey, P., 59
Saltuklaroglu, T., 310
Sandalla, E., 107
Sandberg, D. E., 175
Sander, L. W., 228
Sanders, C., 192
Sanders, J. L., 138
Sandvik, E., 385
Sandy, C. J., 107
Santschi, C., 289
Saper, Z., 162
Sarner, L., 246
Saruwatari, L. F., 160
Saslow, G., 354
Sasson, N. J., 276
Sato, W., 274
Sauter, D. A., 53, 341, 342, 344
Savic, I., 181
Savitsky, J. C., 291
Saxe, L., 157, 318
Sayette, M. A., 290
Schachter, S., 120, 353
Schafer, J. A., 104
Schauss, A. G., 108
Scheflen, A. E., 23, 24, 220, 363
Schelde, T., 313
Schellenberg, E. G., 63
Scherber, C., 165
Scherer, K. R., 28, 32, 35, 80, 273, 326, 328,
341, 342, 344, 345, 346, 414
Scherer, S. E., 139
Schertler, E., 390
Schiavenato, M., 39
Schick, V. R., 177
Schiefenhövel, W., 53
Schiffenbauer, A., 79, 369
Schiffrin, D., 375
Schlenker, B. R., 105
Schlenker, D. R., 105
Schlösser, S., 181
Schmid Mast, M., 18, 60, 72, 73, 256, 264,
296, 299, 325, 369, 371, 372, 412
Schmidt, J. M., 289
Schmidt, S., 32, 35
Schmukle, S. C., 192, 255
Schnall, S., 255, 285
Schneider, F. W., 104
Schneider, K., 229
Scholte, R. H. J., 161
Schrodt, P., 407
Schroeder, C., 173
Schroeder, J. L., 301
Schultz, D., 75, 76
Schulz, R., 140
Schulze, G., 330
Schumann, D., 397
Schupp, H. T., 200
Schutte, J. G., 119
Schwartz, A. A., 250
Schwartz, B., 105
Schwartz, P., 371
Schwartz, W., 308
Schwarz, N., 398
Schyns, P. G., 282
Scott, C., 74
Scott, M. B., 125
Scott, S. K., 53, 341, 342, 344
Scovanner, P., 39
Searcy, M., 27
Seatriz, V., Jr., 249
Sebanz, N., 300
Secord, P. F., 258
Seebeck, T., 181
Segal, N. L., 42, 43
Segall, D. O., 81, 82
Segers, E., 142
Segrin, C., 235, 250
Seibt, B., 289
Seifer, R., 291
Seiter, J. S., 160
Seligman, C., 162
Seltzer, A. L., 318
504 NAME INDEX
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Seltzer, L. J., 325
Senghas, A., 286
Senju, A., 313
Sephton, S. E., 102
Serota, K. B., 391
Seyfarth, R. M., 341
Shackelford, T. K., 156, 167, 312
Shaffer, D. R., 349
Shankar, A., 241
Shannon, M. L., 184
Shapiro, J. G., 18
Shariff, A. F., 369
Shawn, T., 21
Sheehan, D., 177
Sheehan, E. P., 193
Sheldon, W. H., 22
Shelton, J. N., 65
Shepard, G. H., Jr., 174
Shepherd, S. V., 51
Sherzer, J., 204
Shih, Y.-N., 112
Shilcock, A., 111
Shimoda, K., 55, 174
Shindel, A. W., 176
Shiota, M. N., 274
Shlien, J. M., 318
Shores, A. L., 384
Shovelton, H., 218
Shreve, E. G., 255
Shrivastav, R., 339
Shulman, G. M., 21, 377, 378
Shulman, H. C., 391
Shuter, R., 138, 409
Sideman, L. A., 292
Siegel, A. E., 18
Siegel, B., 170
Siegel, J., 417, 418
Siegle, G. J., 320
Siegman, A. W., 333, 335, 345, 353, 360
Sigler, E., 406
Simmons, L. W., 341
Simo, M., 164
Simpson, D. M., 102
Simpson, J. A., 363
Singer, J. E., 112
Singer, M., 234
Singh, D., 173, 174
Singh, L., 314
Sinha, P., 76
Sini, B., 32, 35
Skinner, M., 289
Skirving, C. J., 218
Skowronski, J. J., 25
Skuse, D. H., 313
Slater, A., 154
Slater, M., 128
Sloan, D. M., 274
Slovacek, C., 417
Smith LeBeau, L., 68, 236, 307, 334, 371, 387
Smith, C. A., 224
Smith, D. E., 235
Smith, E. W. L., 246
Smith, E., 109
Smith, J., 267
Smith, J. F., 176
Smith, M., 253
Smith, S. M., 349
Smith, S. S., 391
Smith, W. J., 261
Smolak, L., 184
Smythe, M.-J., 407
Snodgrass, S. E., 67, 68
Snyder, J., 336
Snyder, M., 81, 311, 393
Snyder, R. A., 370
So, W. C., 217
Sobol, A. M., 173
Solomon, D., 18
Solomon, H., 292
Solomon, L. Z., 292
Sommer, R., 91, 92, 93, 128, 135, 136,
139, 144
Sommers, S. R., 23, 383
Son, J. Y., 277
Sondheimer, S. J., 181
Sorenson, E. R., 278
Soroker, N., 8
Soskins, M., 391
Soussignan, R., 287
Spanlang, B., 128
Sparhawk, C. M., 205
Sparks, W., 95, 175
Sparrow, B., 251
Spence, C., 108
Spezio, M. L., 313
Spiegel, N. H., 390
Spielman, D. A., 76
Spilka, B., 270
Spitz, H. H., 250, 251, 252, 393
Spitzberg, B. H., 363
Spörrle, M., 159
Sprecher, S., 154, 161
Sproull, L., 417
Stabler, B., 175
Stack, D. M., 233
Staffieri, J. R., 173
Stafford, L. D., 113, 239
Stamp, G., 84
Stamper, J. L., 71
Staneski, R. A., 177, 307
Staples, B., 107
Stark, C. P., 184
Stass, J. W., 320
Steg, L., 101
Steidtmann, D., 320
Steimke, R., 313
Stein, M. I., 26
Stein, S., 160
Stein, T. S., 414
Stenberg, C. R., 38
Stephen, I. D., 192
Stephenson, G. M., 299
Stepper, S., 287, 288
Stern, D. N., 299
Stern, K., 181
Stern, L. A., 368
Sternberg, R., 59
Stevanoni, E., 218
Stevens, K., 345
Stewart, D. W., 25
Stewart, J. E., 161
Stewart, S. H., 174
Stewart-Brown, S., 233
Stier, D. S., 236, 384
Stiff, J. B., 17
Stillman, T. F., 381
Stinson, L., 71
Stokes, J., 77
Storck, J., 417
Stouffer, S. A., 119
Stouten, J., 291
Strack, F., 287, 288, 342
Strauss, N., 360
Streeck, J., 24, 200, 211, 221
Street, R. L., Jr., 348
Streeter, S. A., 174
Strenta, A. C., 140
Streri, A., 37
Sturman, E. D., 369
Suarez, I., 345
Sullivan, J., 38
Summerfield, A. B., 78
Summers, J. O., 348
Surakka, V., 271, 288, 319
Surguladze, S. A., 77, 276
Sutker, L. W., 370
Swami, V., 174
Swenson, J., 63
Szalma, J. L., 112
Tamarit, L., 273
Tamer, R., 200
Tan, H. H., 75
Tang, J., 390
Tang, R., 246
Tanke, E. D., 393
Taranta, A., 414
Tarrant, M., 111
Tassinary, L. G., 174
Tatkow, E. P., 307
Taylor, D. M., 336
Taylor, L. S., 157
Taylor, S. E., 143
Taylor, V. L., 141
Tcherkassof, A., 274
Tegeler, C., 246
Templer, D. I., 26
Termine, N. T., 61
Terpstra, D. E., 159
Terranova, S., 75, 400
Thayer, S., 370
Theeuwes, J., 298
Theune, K. E., 163
Thibaut, J., 316
Thiel, D. L., 155
Thingujam, N. S., 344
NAME INDEX 505
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Thirer, J., 105
Thomas, A. P., 164
Thompson, D. E., 139
Thompson, E. H., 242
Thompson, N. S., 340
Thompson, T. L., 310
Thompson, W. F., 63
Thornhill, R., 167, 174, 181
Thorpe, W. H., 44
Thunberg, M., 293
Tickle, J. J., 390
Tickle-Degnen, L., 65
Tidd, K., 292
Tidwell, L. C., 416, 417
Tiemens, R. K., 401, 403
Tillmann, V., 37
Ting-Toomey, S., 408
Tinti, C., 32, 35
Tipper, S. P., 300
Tipples, J., 283, 284, 300
Titone, D., 325
Titus, J., 335
Todd, P. M., 360
Todd, R. M., 276
Todorov, A., 404, 405
Todt, D., 378
Tojo, Y., 313
Toma, C. L., 156
Tomasello, M., 44, 51, 300
Tomhave, J. A., 292
Tomkins, S. S., 303
Tooby, J., 31
Toosi, N. R., 383
Tourangeau, R., 287
Tracy, J. L., 53, 284, 306, 369
Trager, G. L., 22, 330
Trainor, L. J., 339, 340
Treasure, J., 344
Trees, A. R., 364
Trehub, S. E., 325
Triandis, H. C., 409
Trimboli, C., 214, 296
Trisdorfer, A., 156, 174, 177, 178
Trivers, R. L., 174
Trope, Y., 167
Tross, S. A., 235, 249
Trout, D. L., 223
Troutwine, R., 140
Trower, P., 63
Trupin, C. M., 205
Tsuji, A. A., 249
Tucker, J. S., 80, 163
Turner, L. H., 338
Tusing, K. J., 334
Tybur, J. M., 181
Udry, J. R., 165
Underwood, L., 175
Utzinger, V. A., 347
Valins, S., 117
Valla, J. M., 167
Valone, K., 348
Valsiner, J., 55
van Amelsvoort, A. G., 331
Van Baaren, R. B., 222
Van Borsel, J., 334
Van den Berg, Y. H. M., 142
van der Pasch, M., 300
van der Schalk, J., 222
van der Steen, J., 102
van Dulmen, A. M., 300
van Honk, J., 312
van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M., 44, 48, 49
van Lancker, D., 331
Van Straaten, I., 307
Vancil, D. L., 402
Vande Creek, L., 18
VanderDrift, L. E., 250
Vanicelli, M., 343
VanLear, A., 9
Vannier, S. A., 362
Varano, S. P., 104
Varendi, H., 37
Vauclair, J., 212
Vaughn, L. S., 154
Vazire, S., 66, 107, 192
Veccia, E. M., 235, 385
Venning, J., 140, 173
Venuti, P., 289
Verhaak, P. F. M., 300
Verhulst, B., 404
Verkamp, J. M., 232
Verser, R., 402
Vervoort, T., 267
Vettin, J., 378
Vig, P. S., 288
Viken, R. J., 43
Vinall, J., 411
Vinsel, A., 108
Viscovich, N., 337
Vital-Durand, F., 154
Vogel, T., 160
Vogt, D. S., 75
Vogt, E. Z., 251
Volkmar, F. R., 18
von Cranach, M., 33, 35, 36, 269, 296
Vorauer, J. D., 417
Vrana, S. R., 244
Vranic, A., 141
Vrij, A., 102, 390, 391
Vrugt, A., 386
Wade, A., 214
Wade, T. J., 361
Wagner, H. L., 73, 81, 267, 275
Wagner, H., 82, 268
Wagner, M., 205
Wagner, S. H., 74
Walker, A. S., 82
Walker, M. B., 214, 296
Walker, R. N., 173
Walker-Andrews, A. S., 73
Wallbott, H. G., 21, 80, 341, 346
Wallen, E., 292
Waller, B. M., 51
Walster, E. H., 154, 156, 157, 164
Walters, A. S., 313
Walther, J. B., 416, 417, 418
Wang, J. T. Y., 318
Wang, S.-H., 348
Wapner, W., 221
Ward, C., 144
Ward, T. B., 189
Warden, J., 191
Ward-Hull, C. I., 174
Wardle, M., 333
Warner, R. M., 229
Warnock, H., 301
Warren, B. L., 176
Warren, G., 390
Wasserman, R. H., 245
Waters, L. T., 337
Watkins, J. T., 18
Watson, B., 162
Watson, M., 190
Watson, O. M., 138
Waxer, P. H., 253, 412
Weaver, J. C., 334
Webb, A., 308
Weber, K., 407
Weber, M. J., 125
Wedekind, C., 181
Weekes, B. S., 319
Wegner, D. M., 251
Wehrle, T., 273
Weigert, A., 16
Weikum, W. M., 40
Weinberger, A., 301
Weinstein, E., 264
Weinstein, H., 138
Weinstein, N. D., 113
Weis, D. L., 360
Weisbuch, M., 317
Weissbecker, I., 102
Weisz, J., 301
Weiten, W., 161
Wells, D., 246
Wells, W., 170
Wendin, K., 270
Wenkert-Olenik, D., 8
Werner, C. M., 98, 107
Wero, J. L., 167
Westfall, J. E., 99
Wetzel, C. G., 243
Wexner, L. B., 109
Weyers, P., 289
Whalen, P. J., 277
Wheeler, L., 157
Wheeless, L. R., 407
Wheeless, V. E., 407
Wheelwright, S., 77, 303, 304, 313, 344
Whitcher, S. J., 249
White, A. G., 114
White, J., 75
White, M., 285
506 NAME INDEX
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White, P. A., 299
White, S. E., 187
Whitehead, W. E., 244
Whitens, A., 255
Whitt, K., 175
Whitty, M. T., 362
Wickens, T. D., 331
Wicks, R. H., 402
Widaman, K. F., 81, 163
Widen, S. C., 282
Widgery, R. N., 160
Wiener, M., 324
Wiens, A. N., 354
Wieser, M. J., 312
Wiggins, J. S., 174
Wiggins, N. H., 174, 365
Wilbur, M. P., 301
Wilder, B., 229
Wilke, W., 336
Wilkin, K., 222
Wilkins, R., 441
Wilkowski, B. M., 293
Williams, C. E., 345
Williams, C., 249
Williams, K. D., 300
Williams, M., 317, 348
Williams, S. L., 343
Williams, W. M., 167
Willingham, B., 272
Willis, F. N., 138, 201, 232, 233, 235, 320,
385, 409
Wilson, C. E., 320
Wilson, E. M., 340
Wilson, J. Q., 101
Wilson, K., 344
Wilson, L., 413
Wilson, T. D., 397
Wilson, T. P., 376
Wilson, V., 102
Wing, A. M., 245
Winograd, C. H., 290
Winstead, B. A., 178
Winterbotham, M., 81
Winters, L., 307
Wirth, J. H., 300
Witt, P. L., 407
Wittmann, M., 99
Wohlrab, S., 193
Wolf, I., 343
Wolf, N., 177
Wolff, E., 99
Wolfgang, B. J., 289
Wollin, D. D., 106
Wolsic, B., 161
Woodall, W. G., 218, 349
Woodmansee, J. J., 319
Woodson, R., 39, 41, 61
Woodward, B., 401
Woodzicka, J. A., 25
Woolbert, C., 347
Woolfolk, A., 17
Woolfolk, A. E., 405
Woolfolk, R. L., 407
Word, C. O., 318, 383
Wuensch, K. L., 160
Wyatt, R. J., 313
Wyer, M. M., 388
Wyland, C. L., 317
Wylie, L., 205
Wysocki, C. J., 181
Xu, F., 131
Xu, X., 218
Yabar, Y., 224
Yaguchi, K., 313
Yap, A. J., 199
Yarbrough, A. E., 241
Yecker, S. A., 289
Yee, N., 418
Yener, C., 109
Yiend, J., 312
Yip, T. K., 218
Yoo, S. H., 262
Yoon, J. M., 314
Yopchick, J. E., 25, 72, 75, 415
Yoshikawa, S., 274, 411
Yoshioka, G. A., 120
Young, C., 246, 400
Young, H., 101
Young, J., 155
Young, M., 190
Young, S. G., 282
Youngstrom, E., 75, 76
Yu, C., 325
Yu, D. W., 174
Yu, M., 101
Yun, D., 408
Yunusova, Y., 340
Zagoory, O., 234
Zagoory-Sharon, O., 340
Zaidel, S., 81
Zajac, D. J., 335
Zajonc, R. B., 163, 288, 293, 366
Zanna, M. P., 154, 318, 383, 386
Zebrowitz, L. A., 31, 80, 168, 169, 199,
339, 405
Zebrowitz-McArthur, L., 199
Zeidner, M., 59
Zelano, B., 180
Zelmanova, Y., 99
Zhang, F., 366
Zhang, G., 156157
Zhang, S., 410
Zhong, C. B., 98
Zhou, P., 178
Ziegler, T. E., 325
Zilliacus, E., 417
Zimbardo, P. G., 99, 122
Zimmerman, D. H., 376
Zimmermann, F., 301, 306, 307
Zimring, L., 253
Zormeier, M. M., 363
Zucker, A. N., 177
Zuckerman, M., 72, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 286,
292, 298, 326, 334, 335, 388, 390, 398
Zumbach, J., 301, 306, 307
Zurif, E., 221
Zweigenhaft, R., 66, 114
NAME INDEX 507
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SUBJECT INDEX
Note: The concept of emotion, and individual emotion names, are integral to many chapters. To avoid an overabundance of page references, these
terms are not included as primary headings in the index. For the same reason, specific personality trait terms and many specific nonverbal
behaviors are not individually indexed.
abuse, 26
accents/dialects, 336337
accuracy in perceiving nonverbal cues
age, 7374, 339
criteria for scoring accuracy, 6668
domains, 6566
gaze behavior, 313
in development, 37, 6164, 344
lie detection, 389
measurement, 6668, 274278
noticing/recalling, 60
personal correlates, 7178, 83
relation to sending accuracy, 8283
task correlates, 7879
training/improvement, 6364
verbal cues, 60
vocal cues, 36, 341, 344
adaptors, 253, 255256; see also self-touch
advertising, 396400
affect blends, 264265
Affective Communication Test (ACT), 8081
animal communication, 51, 129130, 252,
341; see also primates
architectural design, see environment
artifacts, see clothing
assault, 26; see also sexual harassment
attractiveness
baby face, 168169
body, 169185
culture, 155156, 173
dating/relationships, 156159
face/eyes, 165169, 320321
hair, 182185
height, 174177
in development, 154155, 173
persuasion, 160161
physical attractiveness stereotype, 155
self-esteem, 161
social impact, 161165
voice, 334335
workplace, 159160
autism, 78, 289, 313315, 320, 344
automaticity, 10, 293
awareness of nonverbal cues, 10, 2324,
250252, 264, 318, 397; see also
intentionality
baby face, 168169, 405
back channels, 260, 298299, 354, 377378
behavioral ecology theory, 267268
blind/deaf individuals, 3236
blinking, 296
body movement, 12; see also gesture
brain activity, 910, 43, 200, 301, 400
brain damage, 9, 289
Brunswik lens model, 381382
chameleon effect, see mimicry
clinician-patient interaction, 81, 245246,
289290, 316317, 328330, 343,
371372, 411415; see also mental
disorders
clothing, 1112, 186194, 363
cognitive ability, 74; see also intelligence
color, 51, 108111
computer-mediated communication,
416418
conflicting messages, 1518
context effects, 47, 60, 249250, 277278,
291292, 395396
content masking, 67, 342343
courtrooms, 2627, 161162, 168, 291
courtship, 53, 307308, 360363; see also
flirtation; see also attractiveness;
see also quasi-courtship
culture, 5257, 78, 317318, 341342,
408411; see also race and ethnicity;
see also universality; see also
display rules
decor, 105108; see also environment
density and crowding, 129133
depression, see mental disorders
development, see subheads under specific
index terms; see also education; see also
infants
Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy
(DANVA), 69, 72
Differential Emotions Theory, 38
display rules, 81, 262266
distance, interpersonal
correlates, 137142
culture/ethnicity, 138139
in development, 133, 137138
zones of interaction, 133
violations, 125129, 136
walking, 135; see also reciprocity and
compensation
dominance, see power/dominance
Duchenne smile, 270273
educational settings, 9194, 114115,
405408
email, 416418
emblems, see gestures
emotion recognition, see accuracy in
perceiving nonverbal cues
emotional contagion, 226, 288, 342
emotional intelligence, 59, 344
empathic accuracy paradigm, 7071
empathy, 414
encoding accuracy, see sending accuracy
environment, 11
architectural design and movable objects,
105108, 114121
broken windows theory, 101
classrooms, 9194
color, 108111
dimensions of perception, 9498
home team advantage, 105
lighting, 111113
natural environment, 100104
proximity, 119121
sounds, 111113
temperature, 101104
ethnicity, see race and ethnicity; see culture
evolution, 3132, 4452
expectations, 252
eyebrow flash, 21, 5355, 82
eye color, 296
eye flash, 296
eye tracking, 303, 318, 320
face-ism, 292
Facial Action Coding System (FACS), 32,
268274, 413
facial behavior, 13
and emotion, 261275, 278285
and health, 285
blind/deaf individuals, 3236
facial feedback, 286289
impact of, 289293
in development, 267, 272273, 291
measurement, 268274; see also display
rules
facial appearance, 404405; see also
attractiveness
508
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facilitated communication, 250251
FACS, see Facial Action Coding System
family expressiveness, 83
feedback, 286289
flirtation, 53, 360361, 363; see also courtship
gait, see walking
gaze, 13
and personality, 310313
blind/deaf individuals, 34
correlates, 309318
and emotions, 301306
flirtation, 361
functions, 297311
gaze-cuing, 299300, 312; see also power/
dominance; see also visual dominance ratio
gaze-cuing, 299300, 312
gender/gender differences, 73, 81, 137,
145147, 236237, 292, 300, 312313,
337339, 361, 384387, 397399;
see also attractiveness
genetics, 31, 38, 4042, 5152
gestures
culture, 200211
functions, 200201
in development, 202, 221222
speech independent, 12, 201211
speech related, 12, 201, 211219
greetings and good-byes, 21, 5153, 373375
haptics, see touch, interpersonal; see
self-touch
health care, see clinician-patient interaction
history of nonverbal communication studies,
2125
identity, 377381
illustrators, see gestures
immediacy, 15, 364365, 368, 401, 406408
infants, 3740, 232, 290, 308, 313, 413
intelligence, 382
intentionality, 10; see also awareness of
nonverbal cues
interactional synchrony, 222229; see also
mimicry
Interpersonal Perception Task (IPT), 6971
interpersonal sensitivity, see accuracy in
perceiving nonverbal cues
internalizer-externalizer dimension, 285
interruptions, 338339, 371
interviews, see workplace
intimacy, 360368; see also courtship;
see also flirtation; see also marriage
intimacy equilibrium, see reciprocity and
compensation
Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect
Recognition Test (JACBART), 69
leadership, 26, 143144
leakage, 345
lying/lie detection, 62, 262263, 316,
387392
marriage, 82, 309; see also relationships
masking, 262263, 271
media, 25; see also politics/politicians; see also
technology
mental disorders, 7677, 82, 100, 104,
113114, 131, 289290, 312315, 320,
329, 411414
microexpressions, 265266
mimicry, 222229, 267, 288289, 364
music, 342
nature-nurture, 2957; see also genetics
odors, 37, 98, 179182
pain, 3839, 267, 413
parallel process model, 83
pauses, 345, 348352
personal space, see distance, interpersonal
personality
decoding and encoding, 66, 380382
gaze, 310313, 316
judgments of the face, 258259
vocal behavior, 333336; see also
Brunswik lens model
persuasion, 160161, 317, 348349
physiognomy, 80
physiology, 56, 127128, 244, 285289, 293,
309, 326327, 362, 400; see also brain
activity
politics/politicians, 205, 207, 213, 225, 227,
231, 244, 247, 263, 401405
popular books, 2324, 364
posed expressions, versus spontaneous, 67,
7879, 266267; see also sending
accuracy
posture, 12, 128, 372, 377, 402, 406
power/dominance, 15, 26, 144, 175176,
199200, 306308, 310311, 334, 339,
369372, 404
prejudice, 65
primates, 4452, 54, 234
Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS),
6869, 7274, 7679
proxemics, see distance, interpersonal; see
culture; see gender; see seating/spacing
in small groups; see territoriality; see
touch, interpersonal
psychotherapy, see clinician-patient interaction
pupil size, 318321
quasi-courtship, 363364
race and ethnicity, 7576, 255, 317318,
382384, 397, 399, 409; see also
culture
rapport, 65
readout, 266
receiving accuracy, see accuracy in perceiving
nonverbal cues
reciprocity and compensation, 292, 308310,
367369
regulation
interpersonal, 1921, 259260,
298300, 306, 349355, 373379
in development, 20
self, 1920; see also self-synchrony
relationships, 119121, 364367; see also
courtship; see also flirtation; see also
marriage
rituals, 31
schizophrenia, see mental illness
seating/spacing in small groups, 142149
self-fulfilling prophecy, 23, 383, 406; see also
expectations
self-presentation, 80, 263, 289; see also
identity; see also personality
self-synchrony, 1920, 219222
self-touch, 1213, 253256
sending accuracy, 344
correlates, 7983
in development, 80
measurement, 6668
sensory deprivation, see blind/deaf
individuals
sexual attraction, 51; see also courtship
sexual harassment, 311, 363, 372
sexual orientation, 65, 334, 362
sign language, 202
smiling, 259261, 263267, 270273, 277,
284, 286292, 298299, 307308, 313,
361362, 366367, 370372, 374375,
377379, 384389, 398, 400, 406407,
412414, 416
felt smiles, 263268, 289, 333334;
see also Duchenne smiling; see also
flirtation; see also immediacy
social competence, 5960
social status, see power/dominance
speech disturbances, 345
spontaneous cues, see posed cues
stereotypes, 155, 258259, 336, 396397
substance abuse, 7778
teacher behavior, see educational settings
technology, 414418
territoriality, 123129
Test of Nonverbal Cue Knowledge
(TONCK), 72
thin slices, 67, 7172
time, perceptions of, 9899
touch, interpersonal
compliance, 243
correlates, 234237
functions, 241249
in development, 232234
social influence, 231232, 243244
types of touch, 237241; see also
proxemics
turn-taking, see regulation, interpersonal
twins, 4043
universality, 5257; see also culture
SUBJECT INDEX 509
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
verbal behavior, relation to nonverbal
behavior, 89, 1421, 219222,
260261, 323324, 373379, 416
visual dominance ratio, 306307, 372
vocal behavior, 1314
back channels, 260, 298299, 354
comprehension, 348
correlates, 333336
culture, 341342
and emotion, 341346, 355
judgments of groups, 336339
measurement, 326330
pauses, 345, 348352
persuasion, 348349
production, 326330
relation to other nonverbal cues, 324326
speaker recognition, 330332
speech disturbances, 345; see also
regulation, interpersonal
walking, 135, 199
weather, 101104
workplace, 2526, 75, 114117,
159160
510 SUBJECT INDEX
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.