NONVERBAL MESSAGES

IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS

[CHAPTER13]

If asked what the word “fast”means, you are likely to pause, because you

know the word has different meanings in different contexts. If the subject is run-

ning, fast is associated with speed; if the subject is food, fast may be associated

with not eating or take-out food. Nonverbal behavior has the same multimeaning

potential because it can be interpreted differently in different contexts. People who

are sad look down at the floor, but so do people who are submissive or shy.

Knowing which meaning to attribute to a behavior requires knowledge of the

context. A smile displayed by a powerful and energetic person to a submissive

and passive person may be seen as sinister, but the very same smile from the

same person directed at another powerful and energetic person may be viewed

as a happy smile. If any given facial expression can be interpreted in multiple

ways—as delight, contentment, pleasure, approval, interest, or sexually inviting—

then we need to understand how contextual features help us pinpoint the most

likely meaning.

What is context? Those features of a social encounter that provide key markers

for the meaning of any given behavior are usually identified as the context.

Philippot, Feldman, and Coats (1999, p. 13) say that “nonverbal behavior can be

fully understood only when considered within its social context.”You may feel like

you understand the meaning of a particular nonverbal behavior because you are

aware of certain aspects of context: (1) some personal or background characteris-

tics of the people involved—their relationship, their age, their group membership,

their gender; (2) some environmental features—the number of people involved, the

The context is the frame of reference for interpreting an action.

—S. W. Littlejohn

395

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accompanying lighting or noise, the time of day, the furniture configuration; (3) the

expectations and norms for the situation—learning, therapy, fun; or (4) various

message features—the topic, the emphasis given the behavior, what other verbal and

nonverbal behavior preceded and followed the behavior in question, and so on.

These features of context give meaning to nonverbal messages. Whenever we produce

nonverbal messages, they have the potential to change contextual features, too.

In this chapter, we discuss nonverbal messages in the context of advertising,

politics, education, culture, therapy, and technology.

ADVERTISING MESSAGES

No one in modern society needs to be told that we are surrounded by advertising.

Nevertheless, people routinely underestimate the broad scope of its influence. Tele-

vision, magazines, and other forms of media do far more than bombard us with

direct appeals to buy products. To buy a product, you have to lay down your

money; but the media exert a powerful influence on us even when nothing is

bought. By immersing us in images, concepts, and associations, the media and the

advertisers shape the values, attitudes, stereotypes, associations, assumptions, and

expectations by which we live. Thus, advertising does far more than tell us to buy

certain products. It speaks to issues that concern, and sometimes preoccupy, all

people. Advertising penetrates into areas of intense personal concern for nearly

everyone, such as the following:

•What does success mean?

•How does one define beauty?

•How should I behave in order to be socially acceptable?

•How do people belonging to different groups behave, and what do they value?

•On what should I base my self-esteem?

•What kind of a person do I want to be?

Advertising provides, in both blatant and subtle ways, answers to these questions.

Furthermore, advertising does far more than just supply answers to these

questions: It legitimizes the underlying premises that success, beauty, and social

acceptance are the keys to happiness, and that stereotypes have validity. And it

does this without our putting a penny on the counter—indeed, often without our

even noticing.

Many commentators have railed at the subtle influence and the homogenizing

power of the concepts and assumptions that are planted in our minds by advertis-

ing. But individuals who are exposed to advertising, which is everyone, are likely

to deny advertising’s influence when it comes to themselves. We are like the

“fish who don’t know they are wet”: If these images are all we know, then that is

the only reality we know—so how can we imagine an alternative? People also rou-

tinely deny social influences on themselves that they can readily see influencing

others. This “I’m immune to what influences other people”fallacy is common; we

see it when people deny that smoking will harm their health, that they are victims

of discrimination when they obviously are, or that they engage in faulty ways of

thinking about the social world, while at the same time recognizing that “other

people”make these errors all the time.

396 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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People appear to have a built-in bias against recognizing what influences them.

Social psychologists have documented this in countless studies (Nisbett & Wilson,

1977; Wegner, 2002). The sheer fact that researchers can routinely conduct

psychological experiments in which situational factors are manipulated to influence

behavior without the participants’awareness proves that people’s insight into the

sources of their behavior is frighteningly weak (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).

On those occasions when one is on guard for attempted influence, one is

most likely to attend to what is being said. Is this person telling me the truth? Are

advertisers misrepresenting the product or the issues? But the kinds of influence

that are most likely to go unnoticed and remain out of awareness are—you guessed

it—nonverbal in nature. In advertising, nonverbal information accounts for an

overwhelming amount of the total message, especially if we include information

provided by settings, backgrounds, props, possessions, clothes, hair, makeup,

music, and physical and group characteristics of the people shown in addition to

nonverbal behavior such as facial expression, tone of voice, and body movements.

The nonconscious impact rests more on the nature and juxtaposition of these

images and sounds than on what is actually said. As we all know, the verbal mes-

sages contained in advertisements are often silly, irrelevant, meaningless, or not

likely to promote distinctive associations to the product. Yet the message can be

powerful indeed.

That the influences are mainly nonverbal means that we are less guarded

against their influence and less critical of their content. But to make matters

worse, we are most vulnerable to such influences when we are distracted or when

we are not closely attending to, or even resisting, the advertiser’s persuasion

attempts (Petty, Cacioppo, & Schumann, 1983). When people feel a personal

involvement in an issue, they attend closely to the quality of the arguments and

are able to ignore irrelevant information. However, when they are not very

involved—which is the state people are in when exposed to most advertising—they

are prey to nonconscious influence by irrelevant information, such as how sexy the

model is, how charming the puppy in the ad is, how happy the people in the

ad appear to be, or how wise and honest looking the spokesperson is. Cues such

as these have their influence through various psychological mechanisms—some of

which have been mentioned previously in this book—for example, by associative

learning, by modeling, by emotional contagion, and by inducement of mimicking.

Thus, we are most vulnerable when we are in precisely those circumstances under

which we experience most advertising. Furthermore, laboratory research shows

that nonverbal cues that are impossible to notice consciously—that is, those pre-

sented subliminally—can serve as “primes”that influence subsequent behavior,

such as behavior toward certain racial groups (Chen & Bargh, 1997). The images,

associations, and stereotypes represented in advertising penetrate our minds

through constant repetition and their fleeting and seemingly peripheral nature. But

peripheral they are not—they are the message.

Empirical research is not required to show us the validity of this analysis, yet

research does exist. One area of intense study has been the representation of gender

in advertisements. Goffman (1979) listed several ways in which the nonverbal

portrayal of women suggests demeaned status relative to men: the relative size of

men versus women; how objects or people are touched or grasped; which gender

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 397

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appears to be in charge of the activity; the presence of ritualized subordination

gestures, such as averting the eyes; “unserious”clowning or childlike poses; and

the occurrence of “licensed withdrawal,”when women separate themselves from

the ongoing activity. Of course, one can add other specific ways in which the gen-

ders are shown stereotypically: the roles assigned to men and women—the male

worker versus female homemaker, or male narrator versus female onscreen charac-

ter; the distribution of products to male and female onscreen characters, such as

showing men advertising life insurance, electronic products, and financial services

and showing women advertising health and beauty products and retail stores; and

gender disparities in body display and sexualization (Bartsch, Burnett, Diller, &

Rankin-Williams, 2000; Ganahl, Prinsen, & Netzley, 2003; Goffman, 1979; Kang,

1997). One area of concern is how the male and female body is depicted in the

media, both in terms of its form and function. With respect to form, magazines

and television tend to show relatively more of men’s faces and relatively more of

women’s bodies (Archer, Iritani, Kimes, & Barrios, 1983; Copeland, 1989; Dodd,

Harcar, Foerch, & Anderson, 1989; see Chapter 9). And the disturbing, unspoken

message of these depictions is that photos showing more of the face are seen

as more intelligent and dominant (Schwarz & Kurz, 1989; Zuckerman, 1986). In

addition, the bodies of actors and actresses in television programs have changed

over the years, with more muscular men and thinner women being seen by viewing

audiences. Such depictions may communicate erroneous expectations about the typ-

ical male and female body type. More disturbing still, the nonverbal behavior of TV

characters toward people with particular body types may even help shape people’s

cultural views concerning body ideals. Weisbuch and Ambady (2009) showed that

thin women were the recipients of more positive nonverbal behavior than heavier

women by TV characters, and that this “nonverbal bias”can result in women hold-

ing and thinking that others hold slim body type ideals for females. The human

body can perform many functions, such as playing a sport or an instrument, solving

a problem, painting, writing, and building or fixing things; these are all things that

highlight the body’s role in the expression of human competencies. The human

body also can arouse and satisfy sexual needs. One concern is that women, and

increasingly men, are being depicted in the media in ways that stress how they are

merely body parts that can be used for the sexual gratification of others.

Specific nonverbal cues are enacted differently by males and females, too. In

advertising aimed at children, boys are dominant, aggressive, effective, victorious,

and likely to manipulate objects, whereas girls act shy, giggle, cover their faces,

avert their eyes, lower or tilt their heads, and touch objects gently (Browne, 1998).

In advertising showing adult characters, women smile more and stand in a more

canted position, with weight unevenly distributed (Halberstadt & Saitta, 1987).

Because such gender-stereotypical portrayals feel very normal and expected, it is

difficult for us to grasp how profound the assumptions are on which they are

based. Only if boys acted “like girls”and vice versa would the viewer suddenly

see the stereotyping in action. One might counter that the portrayals of men and

women are simply reflecting the way men and women behave in real life. Though

to some extent this is true, many of the nonverbal expressions and mannerisms

shown in advertising are strong exaggerations of real-life gender differences, or

they show behaviors that ordinary men and women do not actually engage in.

398 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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Advertising manipulates not only how we think about products, but also how

we feel emotionally, how we think about social groups, and how we think about

ourselves. More negative nonverbal behaviors directed at black versus white char-

acters on TV may be one way in which racial biases are transmitted to viewers

(Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009). Images of beautiful people who seem very

successful and happy simultaneously invite us to identify with them—“If I drink

PRETTY SEXY!PRETTY UNREALISTIC!PRETTY HARMFUL?!

No doubt this image will strike a number of

people as sexy. An admiring male is being

treated visually—and, as implied by the easy-

to-drop heart over the genital region, soon

physically—to the delights of an incredible

female body.

The words incredible and female body

were chosen carefully as they speak to the

unrealistic and potentially harmful aspects

of this image. First, women do not possess a

flawless body—one that is perfectly shaped

and devoid of bodily hair, blemishes, stretch

marks, and excess weight. Yet these ideal-

ized images of the female figure are every-

where in advertising, suggesting that they

might represent the standard of female

attractiveness as opposed to something that

is altogether unrealistic. Rarely do you read

disclaimers about how these body images

have been subjected to digital retouching.

You might have noticed that something

is missing in this image—the woman’shead!

She has been reduced to a sexual object because the focus is on what is red—her breast and genital regions. What

might ultimately be most sexy about this woman to the man has been chopped off; specifically, those things that

give the woman her individuality, such as her personality, intelligence, skills, goals, desires, not to mention her

face! The woman is thus nothing more than a body to be looked at and used by another for visual and sexual

pleasure.

For women, what are the potential harmful consequences of being exposed often to idealized and sexual-

ized images of other women in advertising? One consequence is that women may learn to view themselves

from the perspective of an observer (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). In other words, they start seeing them-

selves as an object to be evaluated according to the standards of others (standards that have been informed

by such images in advertising). The objectified female body in advertising leads women to self-objectify.

This theorized state of mind is thought to lead to a number of detrimental psychological and behavioral

consequences in women, including excessive appearance monitoring, feelings of dehumanization and

shame, and eating disorders.

LuminaStock/iStockphoto.com

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 399

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this beer, I can become just like them”—and to think we are sadly inadequate by

contrast: “My boyfriend isn’t as cute as the guy in the ad, my sex life doesn’t seem

as exciting, I don’t have such a nice car, and my thighs will never look that good.”

The subtle message that the viewer is inadequate is a large part of advertising’s

lethal power. Even the current fad for television ads to be rapid-video montages,

with many images that change so quickly you hardly know what you saw, is

more than just a way to get the viewer’s attention. It is a way to make viewers

feel slow, dull, and excluded from the exciting, fast-paced life of the people on

the screen.

Advertisers use both research and common sense in planning their strategies.

No doubt a great deal of advertising research is done in-house and is never pub-

lished in journals. But there is no shortage of published advertising research, some

of it very early indeed. An article from 1923 asked the reasonable question, “How

much smiling should an actor show for different kinds of products?”(Burtt &

Clark, 1923). Research participants were shown faces with different degrees of

smiling and were asked to name products that would sell best with each kind of

smile. They thought that clothing would be sold best by a relatively unsmiling

face, whereas toilet articles, amusements, and food would sell better if the actors

smiled more.

Of course, asking people what kind of advertising messages they think would

work best is not the best way to evaluate effectiveness. An advertiser would want

to know about actual consumers’responses and about their purchasing choices.

Current advertising researchers are especially interested in indirect methods of

understanding viewers’emotional responses, and they learn about these responses

by measuring brain activity, recording tiny electric impulses in the facial muscles

associated with different emotions, and cataloguing which facial muscles move visi-

bly (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999; Raskin, 2003; Young, 2002; see Chapter 9 for a

description of such methodologies). For example, such methods may reveal the dif-

ference between a viewer’s true enjoyment smile and the polite smile of a viewer

who is just saying what the researcher wants to hear. In Chapter 10 we also

described early interest in using changes in pupil size as an indicator of viewers’

product preferences.

The fields of selling and marketing do not concern themselves only with adver-

tising; consumers also have face-to-face interactions with salespeople. It should

come as no surprise to know that salespeople are coached in their nonverbal

behavior, for example, to remember to smile at the customer. Researchers evaluate

not only the impact of such coaching (Peterson, 2005) but also the relation

between nonverbal decoding skill and effectiveness at being a salesperson (Byron,

Terranova, & Nowicki, 2007). Indeed, salespeople who scored higher on a stan-

dard test of decoding emotional expressions in the face were more successful in

both real estate and auto sales.

Should you be worried about advertising’s power to exploit and manipulate

you with nonverbal cues and images? Yes! But considering that you can hardly

take up residence on a desert island (assuming there would be no advertising

there), the best you can hope for is to arm yourself against these effects by develop-

ing your knowledge of nonverbal communication and the use of psychological

tactics (Cialdini, 2007).

400 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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POLITICAL MESSAGES

Politicians have long recognized the important role of nonverbal behavior. Presi-

dent Lyndon Johnson is said to have been very sensitive to what nonverbal cues

can communicate. He reportedly cautioned his staff not to stand in front of the

windows and look across the street at the White House the day after President

John F. Kennedy’s assassination for fear it would appear as if they were looking

for power. In journalist Bob Woodward’s (2004) book about how and why Presi-

dent George W. Bush and his staff initiated a preemptive attack on Iraq, he notes

how members of Bush’s cabinet paid close attention to Bush’s body language. In

the following excerpt involving General Tommy Franks, we can see that Bush, too,

felt nonverbal signals played a critical role in understanding a person’s reaction:

“I’m trying to figure out what intelligent questions to ask a commander who has

just impressed me in Afghanistan. I’m looking for the logic. I’m watching his body

language very carefully,”Bush recalled. He emphasized the body language, the eyes,

the demeanor. It was more important than some of the substance. It was also why he

wanted Franks there in Crawford and not as another face on a wall of screens. (p. 66)

The average American watches approximately 30 hours of television per week,

which adds up to nearly 10 years by age 65. Television can highlight nonverbal sig-

nals that can influence voters, and political candidates know that the image they

project on TV will affect voter choices. But biases toward candidates reflected in

the facial expressions of newscasters who report on these political candidates also

may play a role in voter decisions (Friedman, DiMatteo, & Mertz, 1980; Mullen

et al., 1986).

Some argue that political candidates in the United States have become so pre-

occupied with the image they project that their concern for arguments supporting

their policies has diminished. If this is true, it is because politicians are well aware

that image has the potential to trump their positions on issues (Ailes, 1988;

Budesheim & DePaola, 1994). Physically unappealing candidates and candidates

whose behavior does not signal energy, confidence, likeability, and a connection to

voters are not likely to play well on television. Candidates whose nonverbal

demeanor signals a positive relationship message on TV—facial expressions that

communicate sincerity, body positions that suggest immediacy, and vocal tones

that are perceived as caring—are more likely to garner voter support. Television

requires what Jamieson (1988) calls “a new eloquence—a softer, warmer style of

communication.”This in no way minimizes the necessity of a candidate also dis-

playing nonverbal signals that would help to communicate assertiveness and

energy. How have U.S. presidential candidates fared in the image competition?

During the first of the 1960 television debates between presidential candidates

Richard Nixon and John Kennedy, analysts often discussed Nixon’slossinterms

of how he presented himself on television, that is, his five o’clock shadow show-

ing through the stage makeup, lighting conditions that accentuated a tired face, a

suit that blended into the background, and so forth. Nixon has been quoted as

saying he spent too much time studying and not enough time on his physical

appearance (Bryski & Frye, 1979–1980; Tiemens, 1978). A movement analysis

by Davis (1995, p. 213) indicates Nixon’s appearance was only one of his non-

verbal drawbacks.

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 401

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Nixon sits with a tense, narrow posture, whereas Kennedy sits with legs crossed, hands

resting easily, his weight centered. In the medium camera shots, Nixon can be seen

gripping the lectern tightly and not gesticulating for long periods of time, although his

head movements are clear and emphatic. And Nixon displays a disastrous pattern of

hyperblinking—not just abnormally frequent (more than one per second), but at times

with such rapid flutters that his eyes momentarily close. By comparison Kennedy

clearly wins despite his rather ordinary and constricted showing.

It was widely reported and believed that radio listeners judged the debate a

draw, whereas television viewers felt Kennedy was the winner. Even though the

accuracy of this conclusion has been questioned, the belief that it was true may

have been largely responsible for subsequent concern about the influence of non-

verbal signals in political campaigns and debates (Kraus, 1996; Vancil & Pendell,

1987; see Figure 13-1).

Since 1968, the strategies used to create favorable images of political candidates

have become more widespread and more sophisticated. The visuals on candi-

date Web sites are specifically designed to develop the candidate’simageinareas

that are believed to help the candidate win votes—family photos or videos that

imply the candidate is a person with “family values,”or images of the candidate

dressed casually and speaking to people who work in restaurants and factories

to show the candidate’s connection to voters (Verser & Wicks, 2006). The commu-

nication environment at the candidate’s speeches and television appearances is

carefully constructed. At a 2004 campaign speech in Indianapolis, White House

aides asked people in the crowd behind President George W. Bush to take off their

ties so they would look more like the people who would benefit from his tax cut.

FIGURE 13-1

One of the 2008 Presidential debates between John McCain and Barack Obama.

Roger L. Wollenberg/UPI/Landov

402 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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Backdrops with pictures and slogans accompanied most of Bush’s speeches and

became a part of any photo of Bush, the speaker. For some who saw the photo in

the newspaper the next day, the composite message of Bush and the backdrop

summed up the speech completely (see Figure 13-2). When President Bush selected

the site of a small shipping company to deliver a speech on how his economic plan

would favor small business, his aides put up American flags and a backdrop saying

“Strengthening the Economy.”Boxes near the podium stamped “Made in China”

were covered, and a backdrop of boxes labeled “Made in USA”was added.

Analysts of the 1976 Carter–Ford presidential debates argue that Gerald Ford’s

loss was attributable to less eye gaze with the camera, grimmer facial expressions,

and less favorable camera angles (Tiemens, 1978). Subsequently, Jimmy Carter’s

loss to Ronald Reagan in the 1980 debate was attributed to Carter’s visible tension

and his inability to “coordinate his nonverbal behavior with his verbal message”

(Ritter & Henry, 1990). Effective leaders are often seen as people who confidently

take stock of a situation, perform smoothly, and put those around them at ease.

Many saw Presidents Reagan’s and Clinton’s nonverbal behavior this way. In

1984 Reagan’s expressiveness and physical attractiveness were evident, whereas

his opponent, Walter Mondale, was perceived as low in expressiveness and attrac-

tiveness (Patterson, Churchill, Burger, & Powell, 1992). President Clinton’s com-

munication style was a double-edged sword for him. One the one hand, he seemed

able to empathize with an audience; on the other hand, his facile verbal and non-

verbal style led some to question his trustworthiness, which was evident in the

label, “Slick Willie.”Expressions of fear and uncertainty may be the biggest turnoff

FIGURE 13-2

Bush using a backdrop to create an image.

Charles Bennett/AP Photo

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 403

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for voters. These include looking down; hesitating; making rapid, jerky movements;

or seeming to freeze, as Dan Quayle did when Lloyd Bentsen told him in the 1988

vice presidential debate, “You’re no Jack Kennedy.”There have been other notable

turnoffs during presidential debates. During a debate with Bill Clinton and Ross

Perot, President George H. W. Bush glanced at his watch, which, for many, sig-

naled rightly or wrongly his noninvolvement and impatience with the audience or

issues at hand (see Figure 13-3). Finally, in 2000, Al Gore was criticized for exces-

sive sighing as well as for invading the personal space of presidential candidate

George W. Bush.

The fact that the faces of presidential candidates are so prominent in their cam-

paign literature and television ads makes this feature especially important in deter-

mining voter perceptions. In one study, individuals whose faces seemed more

threatening were less likely to win an election (Mattes et al., 2010). In another

study, people looked at facial photos of the candidates vying for congressional

offices from 2000 to 2004 and made a decision about which one appeared more

competent. The candidates judged more competent in the U.S. Senate races won

71.6 percent of the time; the candidates judged more competent in the races for the

U.S. House of Representatives won 68.8 percent of the time. A follow-up study

found similar results when the judges were allowed only one second or less to

view the faces (Olivola & Todorov, 2010; Todorov, Mandisodza, Goren, & Hall,

2005). Thus, people with competent-appearing faces seem to be more electable.

Are there facial cues that could lead to higher ratings of competence for indivi-

duals vying for political office? Riggio and Riggio (2010) argue that facial cues of

dominance coupled with approachability are key. Verhulst, Lodge, and Lavine

(2010), on the other hand, argue that more familiarity with the face and greater facial

FIGURE 13-3

President Bush checks his watch during a debate.

Ron Edmonds/AP Images

404 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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attractiveness can lead individuals to think a person is more competent. Greater facial

maturity and attractiveness are other possibilities (Olivola & Todorov, 2010). For

example, when one of the candidates has a more “mature”face, and his rival is

more baby faced, judgments of competence will tend to favor the more mature face

(Poutvaara, Jordahl, & Berggren, 2009; Zebrowitz, 1997). Keating, Randall, and

Kendrick (1999) digitized the faces of Presidents Clinton, Reagan, and Kennedy and

made them look more or less mature by altering the size of the eyes and lips. A less

mature-faced Clinton, with bigger eyes and lips, was perceived as more honest and

attractive, even by those who did not support him in the 1996 election. Clinton’s

power ratings were not affected by his youthful look, but Reagan and Kennedy were

seen as less powerful when their faces were made to look less mature.

If you plan to get involved in politics one day, you might begin to worry about

your electability, especially if you have questions about the appearance of your

face. However, rest assured, people who are highly involved in selecting a candi-

date are probably not influenced as much by the facial cues of candidates (Riggio

& Riggio, 2010). Moreover, even though a facial quality such as babyfaceness is

linked to lower ratings of perceived political competence, this does not mean that a

baby-faced candidate is doomed to failure (Poutvaara et al., 2009; see Figure 13-4).

Fortunately, the image advisors are not yet in control of all the variables, the

least of which is the public’s increasing knowledge of how political images can be

molded. A carefully controlled appearance and scripted verbal behavior can readily

be offset, or put in perspective, when candidates engage in spontaneous speech and

interactive dialogue about substantive issues.

TEACHER–STUDENT MESSAGES

Whether it takes place in the classroom itself or not, the process of teaching and

learning is a gold mine for discovering the richness and importance of nonverbal

behavior (Andersen & Andersen, 1982; Babad, 1992; Philippot, Feldman, &

McGee, 1992; Woolfolk & Brooks, 1983). The following are only a few reminders

of the ways in which nonverbal cues play a crucial role in this context:

1. Nonverbal cues between teachers and students signal a close or distant

relationship.

2. Students avoid eye gaze with teachers to avoid participation.

FIGURE 13-4

Which candidate is more competent?

Science and Capitol Advantage/

AP Photo

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 405

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3. Students’body postures and facial expressions display their interest and

attention in what the teacher is saying.

4. Students’and teachers’dress, hair length, and adornment affect classroom

interaction and learning.

5. Disciplinary enactments by teachers may manifest in negative facial expressions,

threatening gestures, or critical vocal tones.

6. Teachers announce they have plenty of time for student conferences, but fidget

and glance at their watch when students come to see them.

7. Teachers may try to assess student comprehension and learning by visually

scanning students’facial expressions.

8. Classroom design—wall colors, space between seats, size and placement of

windows—affects student participation and learning.

Subtle nonverbal influences in the classroom can sometimes have dramatic

results, as Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests

were given to elementary school pupils prior to their entering for the fall term.

Randomly—that is, not according to scores—some students were labeled as high

scorers on an “intellectual blooming test,”indicating they would show unusual

intellectual development in the following year. Teachers were given this informa-

tion. These students showed a sharp rise on IQ tests given at the end of the year,

which experimenters attributed to teacher expectations and to the way these stu-

dents were treated. Rosenthal and Jacobson had this to say:

To summarize our speculations, we may say that by what she said, by how and when

she said it, by her facial expressions, postures, and perhaps by her touch, the teacher

may have communicated to the children of the experimental group that she expected

improved intellectual performance. Such communications together with possible

changes in teaching techniques may have helped the child learn by changing his self-

concept, his expectations of his own behavior, and his motivation, as well as his

cognitive style and skills. (p. 180)

In an effort to identify the cues associated with teacher expectancies, Chaikin,

Sigler, and Derlega (1974) asked people to tutor a 12-year-old boy. The boy was

described as either bright to one group and dull to another group, and a third

group was given no information about the boy’s intelligence. A 5-minute videotape

of the tutoring was analyzed for behaviors indicating liking and approval. Tutors

of the so-called bright boy smiled more, had more direct eye contact, leaned for-

ward more, and nodded more than either of the other two groups. In general,

then, people who expect others to do well, as compared to those who expect poor

performance, seem to:

1. Create a warm socioemotional climate

2. Provide more differentiated performance feedback

3. Give more difficult material and more material

4. Give more opportunities for the performer to respond (Blanck, 1993; Harris &

Rosenthal, 1985; Rosenthal, 1985)

A related line of research has examined teachers who are perceived as

more and less “immediate”in their style of teaching (McCroskey & Richmond,

1992). We saw in Chapter 12 that immediacy behavior signals liking, warmth,

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and positive affect, and sometimes immediacy is shown when teachers move

around the classroom and gain proximity to their students. Sometimes it involves

more teacher smiling, facial expressions of interest when students are talking,

maintaining eye gaze with students, using a friendly vocal tone, or other beha-

viors that students associate with liking and warmth. Research by Smythe and

Hess (2005) found that student perceptions of their teacher’s immediacy behavior

is not always an accurate reflection of how their teacher actually behaves, but

numerous studies show that when college students do associate nonverbal imme-

diacy with a teacher, they are more likely to like the teacher and the course.

There is also more teacher–student interaction in these classes, and students

report that they would like to take another course from that instructor. Students

feel they learn more from teachers who exhibit immediacy behavior, which obvi-

ously is an important outcome. One motivational benefit of teacher immediacy

includes students’desire to persist in college (Wheeless, Witt, Maresh, Bryand,

& Schrodt, 2011).

In terms of actual or perceived learning outcomes, the data available at present

do not provide consistent and conclusive evidence that students actually feel more

competent or learn more from teachers who exhibit more immediacy behavior

(Allen, Witt, & Wheeless, 2006; Goodboy, Weber, & Bolkan, 2009; Harris &

Rosenthal, 2005; Houser & Frymier, 2009; Witt, Wheeless, & Allen, 2004). At

this point it seems reasonable to assume that perceived teacher immediacy will

improve some types of student learning but not others. Nor does it seem unreason-

able to assume that certain types of students will profit more or less from perceived

teacher immediacy.

Even though plenty of evidence supports the conclusion that perceived teacher

immediacy behavior has a positive impact on some important student perceptions,

the exact nature of that behavior, and the way it is displayed throughout the length

of the class, is not well known. For example, does a teacher have to exhibit imme-

diacy behavior throughout every class period to be perceived as “immediate,”or is

the optimum style a mix of immediate and less immediate behavior? When does

immediacy behavior signal that the course is “easy”or that the teacher is a “push-

over”? Can a teacher be stern, strict, and businesslike and also communicate posi-

tive affect to his or her students? Woolfolk (1978) and others have found that even

negative nonverbal behavior can elicit quality student performance sometimes, but

it is unlikely to be an effective teaching style if used for the duration of the class.

And even though we know the types of behavior associated with immediacy, it is

still not clear how such behaviors should be enacted for them to be perceived as

having an immediate teaching style.

Sometimes teachers treat some students better or worse than others, for example,

because of race, gender, and unpleasant interactions with them. Do students perceive

these teacher biases even when the teachers believe they are suppressing them? Not

always, but certainly much more than teachers believe. Students are often keenly

aware of subtle nonverbal signals that convey messages teachers believe they are

effectively masking. Babad (1992) argues that teachers need to admit their biases to

themselves and recognize that such biases are likely to be perceived by others.

Once that is done, more realistic goals for student–teacher communication can be

developed.

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 407

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Thus far we have been focusing on teacher behavior, but the classroom is a

two-way street in which teachers and students mutually influence one another. As

we have observed, teacher immediacy behavior elicits a number of positive out-

comes from students. But students who exhibit immediacy can also elicit positive

outcomes from teachers (Baringer & McCroskey, 2000). We have much to learn

about the nonverbal communication of warmth and closeness in learning environ-

ments, and this knowledge will be increasingly important as student exchange pro-

grams and distance education continue to increase (Guerrero & Miller, 1998;

Mottet, 2000; Park, Lee, Yun, & Kim, 2009).

CULTURAL MESSAGES

When we learn the rules and norms people expect our behavior to match, we

are learning about culture. All of us exist within several cultures—our family, our

religious group, our social class, our age group, our school, our workplace, our

gender, and our society. So some cultural teaching is a part of all our communica-

tion behavior. Culture in this section focuses on large groups of people, possibly

millions, who vary in age, sex, gender, and social class but share a set of nonverbal

behaviors that help to define them as a culture.

Any behavior identified as characteristic of a large group of people, however,

does not mean that every person or every conversation in that culture will always

exhibit that behavior. For example, a culture described as one in which people

touch each other often may also have some members whose conversations do not

involve much touching; and some conversations may be devoid of touching even

though the interactants normally do a lot of touching. When touching is identified

as a characteristic of a culture, it simply means that this group of people generally

tends to touch each other more when compared with other groups of people.

Scholars believe cultures differ on a variety of dimensions (Gudykunst &

Ting-Toomey, 1988), but three dimensions in particular are useful for examining

variations in nonverbal behavior: (1) high-contact versus low-contact cultures,

(2) cultures that value individualism versus cultures that value collectivism, and

(3) high-context versus low-context cultures.

HIGH-CONTACT VERSUS LOW-CONTACT CULTURES

Cultural differences in touch have been well documented (Andersen, 2011). For

example, people in so-called high-contact cultures establish close interaction dis-

tances and touch each other frequently (Hall, 1966). They enjoy the olfactory and

tactile stimulation that comes with this kind of interpersonal involvement. Central

and South America, southern Europe, and the Middle East are often classified as

high-contact regions; Asia and northern Europe are viewed as low contact.

The United States has traditionally been labeled a low-contact culture. Informal

observations by Jourard (1966) would seem to support this designation. He mea-

sured the frequency of contact between couples in cafés in various cities and

reported the following contacts per hour: San Juan, Puerto Rico, 180; Paris, 110;

Gainesville, Florida, 2; London, 0. Cultural habits do change, and people in the

United States may be touching more now than at any time in their history (see

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“Touchy Topic,”2000; Willis & Rawdon, 1994). In the early 1970s, Barnlund

(1975) conducted a comparative study of Japanese and U.S. touching patterns

using self-reports from 120 college students in each culture. In almost every cate-

gory, the amount of physical contact reported in the United States was twice that

reported by the Japanese. A much more recent observational study on a U.S.

campus of romantically involved cross-sex couples found that Asian couples were

far less likely to walk with arms around one another than were Latino couples

(Regan, Jerry, Narvaez, & Johnson, 1999). Similarly, McDaniel and Andersen

(1998), in a study of cross-sex touch among travelers in a U.S. airport, found that

travelers from the United States touched notably more body regions than did

northeast Asians, who touched less than any group observed, including southeast

Asians, Caribbean and Latin Americans, and northern Europeans. Although this

study measures extent of touch, not frequency of touch, it does suggest—as do the

other studies reviewed here—that whereas Asia, especially northeast Asia, may

indeed have low contact as its norm, the United States seems to have norms that

are further in the “contact”direction. As the U.S. population grows ever more eth-

nically diverse, any broad label would probably be an oversimplification.

Classifying cultures as either high or low contact inevitably covers up differ-

ences. For example, Central and South America are both classified as “high con-

tact,”but Shuter’s (1976) systematic observation of people interacting in natural

settings suggests that public touching and holding decrease as one moves south

from Costa Rica to Panama to Colombia. And as we noted earlier, when we label

a culture as high or low contact, we should not forget that there are likely to be

important variations within a culture. Halberstadt (1985), for example, reviewed

race differences and nonverbal behavior and found that black Americans tend to

establish larger interpersonal distances for conversation than white Americans do, but

they also engage in more touch. As we reflect on high- and low-contact cultures, we

should also recognize the importance of distinguishing between frequency and

meaning. Two cultures may display different frequencies of touch, especially in public,

but it is a separate question as to whether the meanings attached to those touches are

different as well. Communicating intimacy through touch could be done similarly in

both cultures even though one culture allows more public touching than the other.

INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM

Cultures have also been distinguished from one another by the extent to which they

manifest individualism or collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1994). Individual-

istic cultures emphasize things like personal rights, responsibilities, achievements,

privacy, self-expression, individual initiative, and identity based on personal attri-

butes. Regions said to typically manifest behavior aligned with this orientation

include the United States, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, New

Zealand, Germany, Belgium, and Denmark. Nonverbal signals that support indi-

vidualism may include such things as environments designed for privacy; eye gaze

and vocal signals that exude confidence, strength, and dynamism; and distinctive

clothing. Dion (2002) argues that stereotyping based on facial attractiveness will

also be more prevalent among members of individualistic cultures, because facial

attractiveness is another way to highlight distinctiveness.

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 409

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Cultures with a collective orientation tend to emphasize things that show the

value they put on their group membership. Of special concern would be things

like interests shared with group members, collaborating for the good of the group,

maintaining harmony within the group to ensure it functions well, and maintaining

traditions that emphasize group values and successes. Global regions typically

associated with collectivism include Venezuela, Japan, Pakistan, Peru, Taiwan,

Thailand, Brazil, Kenya, and Hong Kong. Among other things, we would expect

nonverbal signals in collective cultures to exhibit familiar routines, rituals, and

ways of behaving that are widely known and practiced in the culture; a high

frequency of deference behavior, such as bowing, gaze avoidance, and politeness

routines that include the suppression of emotional displays that might offend the

group; and behavior designed to avoid calling attention to the actions of an indi-

vidual when it could be detrimental to the group.

HIGH-CONTEXT VERSUS LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES

According to Hall (1976), low-context cultures tend to rely on verbal messages.

Words are valued because they are believed to provide information in a direct,

explicit manner. Saying what you want to say as unambiguously as possible is

valued, and ambiguity is not well tolerated. In contrast, high-context cultures are

more likely to rely on implicit and indirect messages. Nonverbal behavior is valued,

and messages gain their meaning by knowing the context. “What everyone knows”

is the key to understanding, and ambiguity is better tolerated. Such culture distinc-

tions can even impact online interactions. Pflug (2011) noted that people from

India, a high-context culture, used more emoticons than people from Germany, a

low-context culture.

Of course, people come from cultures that vary on a combination of dimensions,

such as low-context versus high-context and individualistic versus collectivistic.

In consideration of this, how do people from the United States (low-context/

individualistic) and China (high-context/collectivistic) express their appreciation for

a close friend or a romantic partner? Bello, Brandau-Brown, Zhang, and Ragsdale

(2010) found that the Chinese used more indirect methods, and that Americans

relied equally on verbal and nonverbal methods, whereas the Chinese used more

nonverbal than verbal methods.

Effective communication in some cultures may rely more on contextual

knowledge than in some other cultures, but the need to understand context is an

issue that permeates any cross-cultural encounter. Ignorance of context leads to

misunderstandings. “Outsiders,”or people who are less knowledgeable about a cul-

ture, are less knowledgeable about contextual cues that give meaning to certain

behaviors.

SIMILARITIES ACROSS CULTURES

The fact that cultures exhibit different nonverbal behaviors gets a lot of attention.

It should. These differences often lead to problematic encounters. But it is also

important to understand that similarities exist across cultures as well. Some of these

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similarities occur because people in one or more cultures adopt a behavior exhibited

in another culture. Today, information flows freely across cultures, so it is not

difficult to imagine how a gesture or style of adorning the body could become a

multicultural phenomenon. Information about behavior in other cultures is regularly

exchanged via travelers, magazines, movies, the Internet, and other ways.

Similarities in nonverbal behavior also occur across cultures for another

reason: They may be part of an inherited neurological program that members of

the human species acquire. In Chapter 2, we noted that the eyebrow raise or eye-

brow flash has been observed in greeting behavior in cultures around the world.

Chapter 2 also reported the work of Ekman and his colleagues (Ekman, 2003;

Ekman et al., 1969), who found people in literate and nonliterate cultures around

the world who could decode six facial expressions of emotion with a high degree

of accuracy; in turn, these people could make these same expressions, and these

could be decoded by people from other cultures, also with a high degree of accu-

racy. Researchers have also found considerable cross-cultural agreement on which

faces are attractive and unattractive, and some scholars speculate that this agree-

ment occurs because it is linked to the survival of the species (Cunningham, Barbee,

& Philhower, 2002; Dion, 2002; Etcoff, 1999; Rhodes, Harwood, Yoshikawa,

Nishitani, & McLean, 2002). Mothers from individualistic and collectivistic cul-

tures show similarities in terms of the touching, rocking, and vocalizing they do in

response to their infant’s expressions of pain, which could represent another adap-

tation that was vital to the survival of our species (Vinall, Riddell, & Greenberg,

2011). The list of cross-cultural similarities in nonverbal behavior is not long, but

areas that may prove fruitful to explore include meanings associated with extremes of

eye gaze and the need for territory. Some research on refusal and greeting sequences,

reported in Chapters 2 and 12, suggests humans may even have hard-wired patterns

of behavior.

These underlying similarities among humans are not always readily visible,

because cultural teachings may direct members to mask or minimize them. For

example, the asiallinen “matter of fact”nonverbal style in Finland demands expres-

sive restraint in facial displays. People from more expressive cultures may view this

as a nonexpression, but Finns see it as a valued expression showing emotional con-

trol. In fact, some Finnish leaders have lost credibility with their constituents by

publicly showing a lack of emotional control through facial expressions that were

too reflective of their feelings (Wilkins, 2005).

THERAPEUTIC SETTINGS

Anyone who has ever visited a medical doctor or a psychotherapist knows that

the nonverbal cues exchanged in such a visit are important to the outcome of the

visit. In this section, we suggest four areas in which nonverbal communication is

important in dealing with distress and illness, whether physical or mental:

1. Understanding the disorder. How do clinical professionals define different

conditions, such as depression?

2. Diagnosis. Does the clinician reach correct conclusions about the client’s

problems, states, and progress?

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 411

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3. Therapy. Is the clinician able to help the client solve his or her problems and

maintain good physical and psychological functioning?

4. Relationship. Do the clinician and client develop a positive and trusting

interpersonal relationship?

For each of these goals, nonverbal cues play an important part (Gorawara-Bhat,

Cook, & Sachs, 2007; Hall, Harrigan, & Rosenthal, 1995; Robinson, 2006;

Schmid Mast, 2007). In terms of understanding a disorder, studying nonverbal

behavior and skill can help researchers develop theories about the nature of the dis-

order. In fact, nonverbal behavior might be part of the definition. For example, the

definition of depression includes the expression of sadness, and the definition of

schizophrenia includes the display of inappropriate nonverbal behavior. Similarly,

autism is defined in part by the idea that such patients lack the ability to infer

what’s going on in someone else’s head; therefore, a deficit in the ability to judge

emotional expressions would be a definitional element of the disorder. As summa-

rized in previous chapters, and by Perez and Riggio (2003), many groups with psy-

chological disorders—including depression, schizophrenia, alcoholism (Philippot,

Kornreich, & Blairy, 2003), and autism (McGee & Morrier, 2003)—score lower

on accuracy in judging the meanings of nonverbal cues than do control groups.

At present, it is not clear to what extent the nonverbal decoding deficit so evident

in impaired groups is tied uniquely to the nature of their disorders or instead

reflects other factors, such as a general deficit in cognitive ability, lowered motiva-

tion to focus on experimental tasks, or the effect of medications. Studies need to

include appropriate control tasks, along with the nonverbal sensitivity tests, to

resolve this question.

Nonverbal cues are also important in the process of diagnosis by practicing

clinicians. The process of clinical care, either by medical doctors or psychothera-

pists, involves expert knowledge and cognitive skills acquired through training;

nevertheless, most of what clinical care consists of is interpersonal interaction.

Basically, clinicians and clients talk to each other, and it is through the medium of

speech that therapeutic action occurs. Naturally, nonverbal behavior is a crucial

component of this interaction.

The clinician routinely studies the patient for nonverbal signs that will shed

light on problems and progress. In a psychotherapy visit, the therapist’s ability to

read signs of emotion—especially those that signal issues not brought up verbally,

those that are upsetting to clients or are denied by them—is central. In medical vis-

its, the physician is attuned to emotional and psychosocial issues that might be

causing, or be caused by, a medical condition. For instance, a patient might start

experiencing depression in the aftermath of a heart attack.

Many studies have investigated the display of different nonverbal cues in rela-

tion to different psychological disorders. For example, researchers have shown

that the stereotype of the depressed person as downcast and slow in response has

validity. Evidence of decreased general movement; decreased expressiveness;

decreased speech, gestures, eye contact, and smiling; halting speech; and a deficit

in the ability to express emotions have all been documented in depressed persons

(Bouhuys, 2003; Ekman & Friesen, 1974; Ellgring, 1986; Perez & Riggio, 2003;

Waxer, 1976).

412 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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Some forms of schizophrenia are marked by a voice that is flat and monotone,

and an increase in very subtle muscle activation in the corrugator muscle of the

face—the muscle associated with distressed-looking eyebrows—is observed com-

pared to control participants, even when viewing positive stimuli (Kring & Earnst,

2003). Other nonverbal characteristics of schizophrenia include lack of facial

expression, inappropriate affect displays, increased self-touching, and less interper-

sonal gazing. As discussed in Chapter 10, some nonverbal behaviors are distinc-

tively associated with autism and related conditions such as Asperger syndrome,

most notably gaze avoidance but also less smiling and gesturing (McGee &

Morrier, 2003).

Another illustration of the diagnostic use of nonverbal cues is in the detection

of pain. Obviously, efforts to alleviate pain may not be started if the cues to

pain are missed, which would be a real problem for the person who cannot ver-

bally report being in pain. One study showed that family members did not seem

to be aware of the nonverbal pain cues of loved ones with dementia (Eritz &

Hadjistavropoulos, 2011). Research finds that medical professionals often under-

treat pain, perhaps because they have not correctly decoded the relevant pain

expressions.

Researchers have documented the configuration of facial cues indicative of dif-

ferent kinds of pain in both infants and adults (Patrick, Craig, & Prkachin, 1986;

Prkachin, 1992). Some common indicators include lowering the brows, narrowing

the eye openings, raising the cheeks, raising the upper lip, and wrinkling the

nose. Analysis of cues may reveal information not forthcoming from self-reports

provided by patients. For example, chronic and acute sufferers of temporoman-

dibular joint disorder, which causes painful jaw movement, reported the

same amounts of pain, but the chronic group showed more facial indications of

pain both when alone and when experiencing painful procedures (LeResche,

Dworkin, Wilson, & Ehrlich, 1992). Nonverbal cues can also reveal differences

in the behavior of people actually experiencing pain versus those just pretending

(Prkachin, 1992).

There are also nonverbal behaviors associated with the Type A personality

syndrome (a risk factor for heart attack), including loud and explosive speech

and other behaviors suggestive of hostility. Indeed, many studies implicate hostil-

ity as a precursor to heart disease. In a recent study, facial expressions coded by

the FACS (see Chapter 9) were associated with transient occurrences of ischemia,

a condition in which there is insufficient blood supply to the muscles of the heart,

a predictor of serious and even fatal coronary events. Men with known heart

conditions were videotaped in interviews, and physiological measurements were

made. Those experiencing episodes of ischemia showed more expressions sug-

gestive of anger and more nonenjoyment smiles than those without ischemia

(Rosenberg et al., 2001). Results such as these could influence physicians’care

of these patients.

During medical education, there is a widespread trend to increase training and

awareness of communication factors in medical care. Nevertheless, physicians typi-

cally receive only a limited amount of training in communicating with patients,

including recognizing patients’states and conditions through an enhanced aware-

ness of nonverbal cues. Clearly, physicians can use this kind of knowledge. It is

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 413

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very important that physicians not only notice cues but that they also draw appro-

priate interpretations from them. Nonverbal cues can also be tied to diagnostic

judgments by considering them as an unobtrusive source of information on the

patient’s progress. Ellgring and Scherer (1996), Ostwald (1961), and others have

found that vocal qualities, smiling, movement, and other nonverbal behaviors can

change following psychotherapy.

Thus far, we have discussed ways clinicians make use of the client’s cues. The

client also studies the clinician for signs of understanding, interest, approval, rejec-

tion, and reassurance. The clinician’s nonverbal behavior may facilitate a good

relationship, a high level of trust, and a good exchange of information—what are

together called the “therapeutic alliance”—or it may make the client feel disre-

garded and misunderstood. Hall, Horgan, Stein, and Roter (2002) found that both

patients and physicians were able to judge with significant, though not great, accu-

racy how much they are liked by the other, certainly an impression that could have

far-reaching consequences. In that study, patients whose doctors liked them less

were less satisfied and more likely to consider changing doctors over the following

year. Greater satisfaction and attributions of empathy are associated with doctors

who gaze, lean forward, nod, gesture, establish closer interpersonal distances, and

have warm and enthusiastic voice quality. Sometimes certain combinations of phy-

sician cues have the best effect. Hall, Roter, and Rand (1981) found that patients

were most satisfied when their physicians’voice tone was negative, for example

anxious, but combined with words that were positive, a mix that seemed to convey

concern plus positive regard. Physicians who are better able to decode the mean-

ings of nonverbal cues have patients who are more satisfied and more likely to

keep their appointments (DiMatteo, Hays, & Prince, 1986; DiMatteo, Taranta,

Friedman, & Prince, 1980). Those researchers also found that physicians who

were more accurate at expressing nonverbal emotion cues in a posed task had

more satisfied and compliant patients. So far, it is not known how these nonver-

bally skilled physicians put their skills into action in the medical encounter, but we

can imagine that they might be good at showing empathy, creating a warm atmo-

sphere, or picking up on the patient’s unmentioned issues.

Medical educators now stress the importance of developing a good relationship

with patients. It is a fallacy to think that physicians and patients are just enacting

well-learned roles, or that physicians are cognitive machines that crank out profes-

sional behavior without having feelings or showing emotions. Clinicians and clients

of all sorts develop relationships; they may be of a unique and highly structured

kind, but they are relationships nonetheless. Therefore, all that we know about the

role of nonverbal behavior in attraction, attitudes, impressions, rapport, emotions,

and persuasion is relevant to this special context.

TECHNOLOGY AND NONVERBAL MESSAGES

Virtually all the research reported in this book has been designed to enhance your

understanding of nonverbal behavior in face-to-face interaction. But an increasing

amount of our communication is mediated by various forms of technology. Two

issues emanating from this trend are especially pertinent to the study of nonverbal

414 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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AMORE SENSITIVE MCAT?

When you visit your physician, you are

comforted by the knowledge that he or

she understands biology, chemistry, bio-

chemistry, and physics well, especially as

they pertain to the development and

health of your body. As you might already

know, the Medical College Admission

Test (MCAT) assesses this sort of scientific

intelligence. What you may not be sure

about is his or her social, psychological,

and cultural knowledge of people. There

is no test for that, right?

That used to be the case, but not

anymore.

If you are interested in becoming a

physician, you will need to prepare for a

new section of the MCAT (starting

in 2015), one dealing with the social, psy-

chological, and cultural aspects of human

behavior. In this changing and increas-

ingly diverse world, physicians need to

be sensitive to how factors, such as

patients’cultural and social background,

might influence their patients’health.

Nonverbal cues not only provide clues

to a patient’s state of health, they are

also helpful in determining his or her

likely social and cultural background.

However, a physician’sabilitytodecode

patient nonverbal messages and encode

important nonverbal information to

patients (e.g., disapproval for medication noncompliance) in a manner that is both effective and sensitive

to the patient’s background (e.g., age, socioeconomic status, education, race, ethnicity, culture) is likely a

product of years and years of hands-on training. Years and years of practice do not not guarantee the

development of this skill, though. Regrettably, no test is currently available that assesses a physician’ssocial

intelligence (or ability to eventually possess a high degree of it) around patients, save one—you! You can

always choose to leave a physician who does not respond appropriately to you.

At present, researchers are attempting to understand the characteristics of physicians who are better at

decoding nonverbal cues as well as the consequences of this enhanced nonverbal sensitivity for the medical

visit (Hall, Andrzejewski, & Yopchick, 2009). Moreover, efforts are under way to develop tests that can

help physicians recognize the emotion cues of patients, such as the Patient Emotion Cue Test (PECT)

(Blanch-Hartigan, 2011).

Jupiterimages/Photos.com

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 415

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communication: First, does technology eliminate the role of nonverbal signals in

face-to-face interaction? Second, do changes in the manifestation of nonverbal

behavior mediated by technology result in less effective communication?

The answer to the first question depends on what kind of communication

technology we are talking about and how it is used. Computer-mediated communi-

cation may be verbally dominant, as in texting and email; it may have verbal text

with an anthropomorphic icon or photograph (“pic”); it may provide ongoing

visual images of interactants through videoconferencing or webcams on personal

computers; and, in the case of immersive collaborative virtual environments

(CVEs), it might involve the interaction of two- or three-dimensional animated

representations of the interactants in the form of “avatars”who embody each

interactant’s desired behavior—including frowns, winks, and smiles. Text messag-

ing via cell phones may reduce the role of nonverbal behavior, but cell phones

also have the ability to instantly complement a written message with vocal cues or

a photograph. Even those forms of communication that are verbally dominant,

such as text messaging and email, are not completely devoid of extraverbal signals.

For example, people associate meanings with the length of time it takes a person to

reply, when during the day the message is sent (Walther & Tidwell, 1995), the

depth or detail of the reply, and the number of spelling errors—perhaps a sign of

how much care went into composing the message, or perhaps the sender’s compe-

tence. The meanings associated with these and other features of the communication

will no doubt vary with the nature of the interactants’relationship, their online inter-

action history, how important or pressing the issue is, and the like (see Döring &

Pöschl, 2009).

Will communication effectiveness suffer when people communicate in ways

that eliminate or severely reduce their opportunity to see, touch, and exercise

control over the interaction context? During the early stages of the technology

boom, many theorists and practitioners believed that the effectiveness of human

communication mediated by technology would suffer. They argued that technol-

ogy could not effectively restore what would be lost by the lack of human copre-

sence (Walther, 2006). However, one could argue that the success of Facebook,

where people can let their “friends”know what they are doing, post “pics”and

videos of themselves and others, respond with a “like”to another’s wall post,

view others’photo albums, and play games with like-minded friends, suggests

that such computer-mediated technologies may be filling a void in the lives of

many who lack sufficient interpersonal contact with meaningful others in the

real world.

Human beings and the ever-increasing number of new communication technol-

ogies relate to each other in complex and diverse ways. People can, of course, use

face-to-face communication when they need to use more nonverbal messages in an

interaction (Riordan & Kreuz, 2010). However, some messages can be effectively

communicated through various technological instruments without all the nonverbal

signals that might accompany the same message in face-to-face interaction. When

messages are short, uncomplicated, and can be easily understood without comple-

mentary and redundant information from other channels, almost any type of

mediated communication, including text and email messages, can be successful.

416 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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However, email messages have been found to be less effective in accurately commu-

nicating sarcasm, humor, and certain emotions when compared to vocal and face-

to-face communication. Adding to the problem is the discovery that the people

who sent the email messages greatly overestimated the accuracy of their messages.

Kruger, Epley, Parker, and Ng (2005), who base their conclusions on five studies,

point out that it is apparently hard for the senders of email to appreciate the inter-

pretive perspective of the receiver.

What is lost, however, is ongoing feedback and relationship information that

could be used to adapt message content. Herbert and Vorauer (2003) found that

evaluative feedback was more positive and more accurate in face-to-face interaction

than over email. Some believe that the absence of ongoing feedback and relation-

ship information in less personal forms of communication, like email, facilitates

less sensitive, self-focused, critical, and deceptive messages (Kiesler, Siegel, &

McGuire, 1984). It is not clear, however, whether less personal communication

channels are also less civil. Bullying occurs in the classroom and on the playground

as well as in cyberspace via email, instant messaging, blogs, and so on (i.e., cyberbul-

lying). But is less civil behavior more widespread in email messages or face-to-face

interactions in general? Is less civil behavior more likely in email messages but only

under certain circumstances? Is less civil communication behavior more likely related

to individual style than it is to the nature of the media used to communicate? We are

still seeking the answers to these questions.

Interactive video often allows interactants to accomplish their communicative

goals, but remote interaction via video does not seem to generate the same interper-

sonal impressions as face-to-face interaction. Storck and Sproull (1995) found less

positive feelings among interactants who used interactive video when compared to

those who interacted face to face. And in an Australian study dealing with genetic

counseling via videoconferencing, practitioners reported difficulties in detecting cli-

ent nonverbal cues and with rapport building, even though they were satisfied with

the delivery format overall (Zilliacus et al., 2010).

Sometimes the introduction of nonverbal cues to computer-mediated communi-

cation can be problematic. Apparently college students already know this. In a

study of 1,000 college students, Rumbough (2001) found that 37 percent used the

Internet to meet new people, but only 11 percent posted a picture of themselves.

Without a picture, students did not have to deal with visual cues that might act as

a distraction or source of a stereotype—for example, weight, race, or physical

attractiveness—that might hinder message credibility and relationship development.

These media users want the introduction of any potentially problematic visual cues

to be considered in conjunction with a history of positive interactions. When

photos were introduced to partners who had been working and interacting online

on several tasks, it resulted in lower ratings of affection and social attraction for

their partners, but it had the opposite effect for unacquainted partners who did

not have a history of interaction (Walther, Slovacek, & Tidwell, 2001). Even the

introduction of dynamic nonverbal signals in videoconferencing does not guarantee

more effective communication, unless the images produced fit the viewers’needs.

When videoconferencing focuses on the interactants’faces, it may facilitate com-

munication for more personal messages, but not when an object, such as a new

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 417

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

product, is the focus of the discussion, or when the goal of the videoconference is

to teach a skill, such as bike repair (Brittan, 1992; Gergle, Kraut, & Fussell, 2004;

Kraut, Fussell, & Siegel, 2003). The effectiveness of technology-mediated messages

is also dependent on individual needs and preferences. Some people are more com-

fortable in contexts with more nonverbal cues, and some are comfortable with

less. Certain groups of individuals may share a preference—for example, online

dating services typically report that males are far more likely to use a photo of

the potential date as the basis of a dating decision than are females. Given the

adaptable nature of human beings, it is safe to assume they will not simply be

slaves to technology. Before the computer was invented, typists used capital letters,

underlining, quotation marks, and parenthetical phrases like “just kidding”to off-

set the lack of vocal and visual cues. Computers are equipped with even more

options to make a sender’s message clearer and reduce uncertainties on the part

of the receiver, for example, bold lettering. Emoticons such as :) for happy or for

something intended as humorous, and :( for sad are commonly used to add infor-

mation to an email that might otherwise be communicated by facial or vocal

expressions. But despite widespread recognition of the meaning of these two sym-

bols, they apparently have relatively little impact on the interpretation of email

messages, with one exception: frown emoticons tended to reduce the favorable or

constructive ratings of positive messages (Walther & D’Addario, 2001). In addi-

tion to textual adaptations, the email message itself can be flagged as a priority,

or it may be accompanied by a request for an acknowledgement of receipt. Coping

also occurs when a communicator uses more than one type of technology to com-

municate a message, especially important and urgent ones: a text message or email,

for example, that is followed by a cell phone call. In short, people who are striving

to communicate effectively will learn how to use one or more mediated forms of

communication to suit their needs and offset any deficits created by missing non-

verbal cues. The ability to effectively decode nonverbal cues sent in the form of

computer-generated visuals will also characterize effective communicators in the

digital age. Virtually anyone with a computer and some program like Photoshop

has the ability to alter visual images. Given the high credibility accorded visual

images in this culture, these altered images can be very persuasive, and they

are easily circulated to a broad audience. Just as skilled observers of nonverbal

behavior in face-to-face encounters learn what cues to attend to for effective

decoding, skilled observers of online photos and videos will need to learn what

features raise suspicion about an image’s authenticity as well as how they can ver-

ify or put those suspicions to rest (Knapp, 2008; Lester, 2006; Messaris, 1994;

Mitchell, 1992).

Technology users are not the only ones who are interested in the role of

nonverbal signals and effective communication; the makers of new technologies

are also looking for ways to make their instruments better reflect face-to-face inter-

action. The future is likely to offer a greater sophistication in the area of touching

(Bailenson & Yee, 2007), smell, and three-dimensional images. The production of

avatars with realistic human hair, skin, and smooth movement coordination that

reflect cultural, regional, and ethnic differences are yet to be developed. But it

seems likely that they will—challenging the study of nonverbal communication in

ways we never envisioned.

418 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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SUMMARY

Understanding the meaning of nonverbal behav-

ior requires an understanding of context. This

chapter examined various forms of nonverbal

behavior in several familiar contexts: advertising,

politics, education, culture, therapy, and computer

mediated.

Nonverbal messages embedded in advertising

can be extremely influential. A wide variety of non-

verbal signals including music, hairstyle, clothing,

possessions, and responsiveness are used to influ-

ence the viewer or hearer. When the target of the

ads is distracted during the processing of the ad’s

information, and multiple exposures to the ad

occur, the impact can be even more powerful.

These nonverbal signals not only help sell products,

they can also influence the expectations, percep-

tions, and attitudes of the people exposed to them

as they relate to actual daily social interaction.

It often seems as if political candidates are

obsessed with creating the “right”image, and

more often than not, displaying the “right”non-

verbal signals is a compelling part of that image.

Images of a candidate can be honed by carefully

structuring the environment—the music, back-

drop, others present—within which he or she is

viewed. Managing how the candidate looks with

the help of makeup and the appropriate clothes

and hairstyles is also important, as is structuring

behavior, such as having a candidate “act more

assertive.”On several occasions, the outcome

of televised presidential debates has been attrib-

uted to nonverbal signals: calm demeanor versus

tension, confidence versus uncertainty, warmth

versus coldness, shortness versus height, listening

with interest versus smirking, and so on.

The learning process in elementary, secondary,

and college classrooms is also influenced by

nonverbal messages. Students whose nonverbal

signals communicate liking and warmth get posi-

tive outcomes from their teachers, and students

also believe they learn more from teachers who

exhibit such behaviors. Some research, however,

indicates that negative nonverbal behavior by a

teacher can have positive outcomes for learning

in the short run.

Some nonverbal behavior is common to

human beings throughout the world, but many

of the behaviors we exhibit are taught to us by

our culture. We explored three dimensions along

which cultures vary in order to highlight cultural

differences in nonverbal behavior. These dimen-

sions focused on close versus distant behavior,

behavior focused on highlighting the individual

versus highlighting the group, and behavior that

assumes a great deal of contextual knowledge for

interpretation versus behavior that assumes little

contextual knowledge. Although these broad cul-

tural characterizations are a useful place to start,

it is important to remember that variations also

exist within cultures.

The clinical situation is another context in

which nonverbal messages are crucial. Therapists

and physicians rely on nonverbal signals to

help them understand and diagnose depression,

schizophrenia, autism, pain, and other mental

and physical disorders. Equally important are

nonverbal signals that occur as part of the

communication between therapist and patient

during therapy. Both patient and therapist are

especially attuned to cues that may signal emo-

tions being felt.

In a similar manner, physicians can learn to

read nonverbal signals emanating from their

patients, which can be valuable signs of an illness,

fear, or how the patient feels about his or her

physician. In the same way, patients can use non-

verbal signals to assess how their physician feels

about their illness and their relationship.

To varying degrees, nonverbal signals also

play an important role in messages mediated by

technology. Just as in face-to-face interaction,

nonverbal signals accompanying technology may

complement, repeat, substitute, accent, regulate,

and conflict with verbal behavior. In some cases,

however, the number and type of nonverbal

signals are quite limited. Despite this, messages

can be effectively communicated even though

the lack of copresence often takes its toll on

how the participants feel about each other.

Sometimes the introduction of nonverbal cues

CHAPTER 13 NONVERBAL MESSAGES IN SPECIAL CONTEXTS 419

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in computer-mediated communication facili-

tates effectiveness; sometimes it hinders it. As

technology-mediated communication increases,

human beings will make adaptations with

the signals available to them while seeking to

approximate face-to-face interaction as much

as possible. At the same time, the makers of new

technology will increasingly incorporate alter-

natives for conveying nonverbal information that

more closely approximates face-to-face interaction.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Discuss how the nonverbal behavior of a

patient and physician can mutually influence

each other. Next time you visit a counselor

or physician, try to carefully observe that

person’s nonverbal behavior. Is it as effective

and positive as it could be?

2. You are a consultant to a vibrant, physically

appealing presidential candidate who is not

adeepthinkerandsoisunabletomakegood

arguments for his or her platform. What would

you do to get this person elected? Now reverse

the situation: You are advising a person who is

adeepthinkerabletomakegoodarguments

for his or her platform, but this person is not

dynamic and is physically unappealing. What

do you do to get this person elected?

3. Suppose you were hired to advise incoming

college freshmen on what nonverbal behavior

they should enact to impress their teachers.

What advice would you give?

4. In what ways do you think advertising

influences your nonverbal behavior? How

does advertising influence your perceptions

of other people’s nonverbal behavior? As an

exercise, take careful notes on the use of

nonverbal communication in television adver-

tisements for a few hours. Did you notice

things you had not noticed before?

5. Different cultures exhibit different nonverbal

behavior, and sometimes these differences

cause communication problems when people

from those different cultures interact. But it is

also true that sometimes these differences

occur and there are no problems. Under what

conditions do you think problems would or

would not occur?

6. Select a short scene from your own life

in which you were interacting with another

person. Then assume you and your partner

were communicating that same scene via a

technology of your choice (e.g., computers,

cell phones). Identify the difficulties and

advantages the technology has for communi-

cating the information in that scene.

7. Log onto to the following Web site: www.pbs.

org/30secondcandidate. Discuss how some of

the tricks of the trade for making a candidate

look good or bad are currently being used by

those who are seeking the presidency this

election cycle.

420 PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES

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NAME INDEX

Aamodt, M. G., 73

Abbey, A., 363

Aboud, F. E., 338

Abra, G., 369

Abrahams, D., 156

Ackerman, B., 75, 76

Ackerman, J. M., 250

Acredolo, L. P., 201

Adam, G., 301

Adam, J., 92

Adams, K., 74

Adams, R. B., 303, 306, 317

Adams, R. S., 92

Addington, D. W., 336, 357, 358

Adelmann, P. K., 366

Adolph, D., 181

Adolphs, R., 313

Adrien, J. L., 313

Afifi, W. A., 235, 244

Agobiani, E., 113

Agthe, M., 159

Aguilera, D. C., 241

Aiello, J. R., 138, 139, 309, 386

Aiello, T. C., 138, 139, 386

Aik, V. C., 75

Ailes, R., 405

Akehurst, L., 291

Akert, R., 24, 69

Al Issa, A., 369

Albada, K. F., 163

Albright, L., 71

Alhoniemi, A., 306

Alibali, M. W., 217

Allen, K., 246

Allen, M., 411

Allert, T., 374

Allesen-Holm, B. H., 270

Allison, P. D., 156, 174, 177, 178

Almerigogna, J., 291

Alper, T., 238

Alpers, G. W., 303

Altman, I., 107, 108, 124, 132

Altmann, S. A., 44

Alwall, N., 300

Ambady, N., 10, 21, 25, 26, 57, 62, 66, 67,

71, 72, 78, 79, 167, 276, 282, 290,

345, 351, 383, 402, 403

Amidon, M. D., 328

Amole, D., 133

Andari, E., 314

Andersen, J. F., 9, 409

Andersen, P. A., 9, 234, 236, 365, 385, 409,

412, 413

Anderson, A. H., 299

Anderson, A. K., 285

Anderson, C. A., 102, 103, 112, 402

Anderson, D. E., 390

Anderson, J. L., 173

Anderson, R. J., 336

Andrzejewski, S. A., 25, 72, 75, 419

Anokhin, A. P., 43

Ansel, J., 312

Ansfield, M. E., 390

Antonoff, S. R., 270

Aoyama, S., 37

App, B., 242

April, C., 17

Archer, D., 24, 59, 69, 292, 402

Argo, J. J., 241

Argyle, M., 23, 24, 55, 63, 237

Ariely, D., 155

Aries, E., 340

Armstrong, N., 205

Aron, A., 163

Aronson, E., 160

Aronson, V., 156

Arriaga, X. B., 107

Arteche, A., 290

Arvey, R. D., 159

Asendorpf, J. B., 21, 360

Ashmore, R. D., 164

Asla, N., 62

Athanasiou, R., 120

Atsuko, A., 137

Aubanel, V., 339

Austin, C. M., 341

Austin, S. B., 100

Aviezer, H., 277

Avni-Babad, D., 142

Axtell, R., 205

Babad, E., 142, 409, 411

Babbitt, L. G., 383

Bachmann, T., 168

Bachorowski, J., 266

Back, M. D., 192

Badzinski, D. M., 27

Baeck, H., 336

Baehne, C. G., 301, 306, 307

Bailenson, J. N., 422

Baker, E. E., 80, 108, 164, 175

Bales, R., 144

Balogh, R. D., 180

Banse, R., 343, 346, 348

Barakat, R., 205

Barash, D. P., 128

Barbee, A., 167, 415

Barber, N., 184

Barbosa, P. A., 354

Barchard, K., 267

Bard, K. A., 308

Barefoot, J., 140

Bargh, J. A., 10, 39, 222, 226, 250, 334, 401

Baringer, D. K., 412

Barker, L. L., 349

Barkow, J. H., 31

Barlow, J. D., 318

Barlow, J., 233

Barnard, M., 188

Barnard, W. A., 137

Barnhart, K. T., 181

Barnlund, D. C., 413

Baron, R. A., 98

Baron, R. M., 168

Baron-Cohen, S., 303, 304, 313, 346

Barrett, K. C., 33

Barrett, R. P., 313

Barrett, S., 246

Barrios, M., 292, 402

Barsky, S., 105

Bar-Tal, D., 157

Barth, J. M., 77, 303

Barton, R. A., 51, 109

Bartsch, R. A., 402

Bastiani, A., 77

Bates, E., 222

Bauer, V. K., 79

Baum, A., 117

Baum, K. M., 75, 346

Bavelas, J., 218

Bavelas, J. B., 14, 16, 24, 214, 216, 217, 226,

261, 267, 298, 378

Baxter, L. A., 98

Bayliss, A. P., 300

Beaber, R. J., 346

Beach, S. R., 163

Beakel, N. G., 17

Beattie, G. W., 299

Beattie, G., 217, 218

Beatty, M. J., 43

Beck, L., 62

Beck, S. B., 174

Becker, F. D., 142

Becker, S. W., 143

Beets, J. L., 104

Behnke, R. R., 350

Belch, C., 76

Bélisle, J. F., 72

Bell, P. A., 109, 137

493

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Bellack, A. S., 76

Bello, R. S., 414

Belopolsky, A. V., 298

Bensing, J. M., 300, 316

Bente, G., 369

Bentin, S., 277

Berenbaum, H., 81

Berger, K. W., 218

Bergeson, T. R., 356

Berggren, N., 409

Berglund, H., 181

Berhenke, A., 291

Berke, J., 102

Berkowitz, L., 103

Berman, J. M. J., 330, 349

Berman, P. W., 164

Bernieri, F. J., 28, 60, 61, 65, 76, 222, 228,

298, 307, 328

Bernieri, F., 62, 67, 71, 74, 79, 276

Bernstein, M. J., 273

Berry, D. S., 80, 167, 168, 311, 336, 337,

338, 382

Berscheid, E., 154, 157, 164, 393

Bettens, F., 181

Bevan, W., 258

Bharucha, J. J., 344

Bickman, L., 189

Biddle, B., 92

Biddle, J. E., 159

Biehl, M., 72, 278

Bilo, H. J. G., 300

Bilous, F., 355

Biocca, F. A., 178

Bird, H., 221

Birdwhistell, R. L., 14, 22, 24, 28, 53, 220, 361

Birk, T., 350, 360

Biship, S. E., 328

Bishop, P. J., 173, 184

Bissell, K. L., 178

Bissonnette, V., 71

Black, A., 26, 226, 267

Blair, I. V., 339

Blair, R. J. R., 77

Blairy, S., 274, 416

Blake, R., 189

Blakemore, S., 313

Blanch, D. C., 419

Blanchard, J. J., 76

Blanch-Hartigan, D., 71

Blanck, P. D., 27, 345, 410

Blane, H. T., 345

Blascovich, J. J., 369

Blass, T., 253

Bleske-Rechek, A., 363

Bloch, P. H., 189

Bloom, K., 337

Blumstein, P., 371

Bluni, T. D., 189

Bochner, S., 193

Böckler, A., 300

Bodur, H. O., 71

Bogaert, A. F., 175

Bogart, K. R., 286

Bolkan, S., 411

Bollon, T., 274

Bolt, R., 334

Bonanno, G. A., 266

Bond, C. F., Jr., 390

Boniecki, K. A., 105

Booth-Kewley, S., 285

Boothroyd, L. G., 158, 167, 285

Boraston, Z. L., 313

Borelli, M., 245

Borenstein, M. N., 384

Borkenau, P., 66, 192, 382

Borkowska, B., 336

Bornstein, M. H., 289

Borod, J. C., 80, 289

Borrill, J., 78

Bosh, G., 391

Boss, D., 235

Bosshart, K., 314

Bouchard, T. J., Jr., 42

Boucher, J. D., 55

Bouhuys, A. L., 416

Bowers, A. L., 310

Bowyer, M. D., 339

Boyce, W. T., 71

Boyd, J., 99

Boyes, A. D., 173

Boyle, E. A., 299

Bradac, J. J., 340

Bradley, B. P., 312

Bradshaw, C. P., 101

Brady, R. M., 350

Brandau-Brown, F. E., 414

Brandt, F., 286

Brandt, J. F., 340

Brannigan, C. R., 261

Brauer, J., 300

Braun, C., 165

Braun, M. F., 158

Braunwald, K. G., 342

Bredie, W. L. P., 270

Breen, L., 162

Bregman, M. R., 333

Brewer, G., 193

Breyer, B. N., 176

Brickman, J., 162

Briggs, L. F., 385

Brinkman, H., 138, 235

Brislin, R. W., 156

Briton, N. J., 73, 386

Brittan, D., 422

Brizzolara, M. M., 138

Broadbent, M., 223

Broeders, A. P. A., 333

Bromley, S., 318

Brooks, C. I., 310, 311

Brooks, D. C., 93

Brooks, D. M., 409

Broughton, A., 307

Broune, V. T., 339

Brown, B., 337

Brown, B. B., 107, 108

Brown, C. E., 386

Brown, C. M., 273

Brown, E., 101, 291

Brown, J. W., 221

Brown, R., 26, 220

Brown, W. S., Jr., 341

Browne, B. A., 402

Brownlow, S., 341

Brunalt, M. A., 140

Bruneau, T. J., 357

Brunner, L. J., 260

Brunsma, D. L., 191

Bryan, A., 158

Bryand, M. C., 411

Bryant, B., 63

Bryant, R. A., 99

Bryski, B. G., 405

Buchanan, R. W., 26

Buck, R., 80, 81, 268, 276, 285, 388

Budesheim, T. L., 405

Bugental, D. E., 17, 18, 327, 385

Buker, H., 380

Bukowski, W. M., 175

Bull, P., 77

Bull, R., 162, 390

Bulleit, B. A., 242

Buller, D. B., 383

Burchard, K. W., 317

Burger, G. K., 407

Burger, J. M., 111

Burgess, C. A., 251

Burgoon, J. K., 17, 136, 218, 350, 351, 360,

368, 369, 372, 383, 390

Burk, N. M., 189

Burnett, A., 27

Burnett, T., 402

Burns, S., 159

Burt, D. M., 158

Burtt, H. E., 404

Buslig, A. L. S., 96

Buss, A. H., 255, 312

Buss, D. M., 156, 157

Bustos, A. A., 307

Butler, D., 292

Butler, E. A., 80

Butler-O’Hara, 39

Buttelmann, D., 51

Buunk, A. P., 176

Byrne, D., 128

Byron, K., 75, 404

Cable, D. M., 177, 245

Cacioppo, J. T., 226, 288, 401

Calabrese, S. K., 177

Caldara, R., 282

Calder, A., 312

Calder, A. J., 312, 346

Caldwell, D. F., 111

Calhoun, J. B., 129, 130

Call, J., 44, 51, 300

Calvo, M. G., 278

494 NAME INDEX

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Camden, C. T., 371

Cameron, G., 175

Cameron, H., 218

Camgoz, N., 109

Campain, R. F., 74

Campanella, P., 74, 273

Campbell, D. E., 104, 106, 114

Campbell, J. B., 98

Campbell, L. A., 99

Campos, J. J., 38

Camras, L. A., 38

Cancino, J. M., 104

Cannon, P. R., 285

Caplan, M. E., 140

Caporael, L. R., 342

Cappella, J. N., 52, 222, 227, 290, 308,

352, 371

Carchon, I., 154

Carey, M. P., 250

Carifio, M. S., 140

Carlsmith, J. M., 102, 309

Carlson, G. E., 55

Carnagey, N. L., 112

Carnevale, P. J., 160

Carney, D. R., 61, 67, 71, 72, 75, 79, 199,

307, 371

Carr, S. J., 113

Carrera, P., 266, 270

Carrington, P. I., 160

Carroll, J. M., 266, 277, 278

Cartei, V., 336

Carter, J. D., 60, 66, 68, 73, 319, 371

Carton, E., 75

Cary, M. S., 298

Cash, T. F., 159, 178

Casmir, F. L., 63

Cassell, J., 17

Castelli, L., 66

Castles, D. L., 255

Caudill, W., 138

Caul, W. F., 61, 67, 80, 81, 285

Cavior, N., 154

Ceci, S. J., 167

Cernoch, J. M., 180

Cervenka, E. J., 205

Ceschi, G., 273, 345

Chafetz, M. E., 345

Chaiken, S., 160, 161

Chaikin, A. L., 410

Chambers, C. G., 330, 349

Chan, R. S., 342

Channing, H., 173

Chapman, H. A., 285

Chapple, E. D., 356

Charles-Sire, V., 243

Charney, E. J., 223

Chartrand, T. L., 10, 39, 222, 223, 226,

344, 401

Chase, J., 261

Chawla, P., 218

Cheek, J. M., 255, 312

Chen, F. S., 314

Chen, M., 401

Chen, Y., 217, 218, 221

Cheney, D. L., 343

Cheng, J. T., 306

Cheryan, S., 93

Cheshire, C., 157

Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S., 47, 48, 50

Chiarella, S. S., 233

Choi, Y. S., 10

Chovil, N., 14, 16, 24, 214, 226, 261, 267

Christenfeld, N., 242, 355

Christy, A. M., 282

Christy, L., 291

Chung, J., 262

Church, R. B., 218

Churchill, M. E., 407

Cialdini, R. B., 101, 404

Cicone, M., 221

Cillessen, A. H. N., 142

Clance, P. R., 246

Clark, D. M., 312

Clark, H. H., 355

Clark, J. C., 404

Clausen, A., 199

Claypool, H. M., 273

Clement, R., 338

Cline, M., 277

Clode, D., 289

Clore, G. L., 365

Coates, L., 214, 217, 298, 378

Coats, E. J., 236, 307, 336, 363, 371,

387, 404

Cochard, E., 241

Cochet, H., 212

Cody, M. J., 363, 389

Coe, N. P., 317

Cohen, A. A., 216

Cohen, D., 39, 41, 61

Cohen, S. H., 191

Cohn, E. G., 102

Cohn, J. F., 273, 290

Colapinto, J., 29

Cole, P. M., 81

Cole, S. G., 312

Coleman, L. M., 342

Coles, C., 101

Collett, P., 63, 205

Collins, M. A., 169

Colvin, C. R., 67, 71, 72, 75, 79, 311, 382

Comadena, M. E., 392

Conaty, J. C., 371

Condon, W. S., 219, 221, 228, 229

Connelly, G., 214

Conner, B., 66

Connor, J. M., 233

Cook, M., 24, 144, 145, 146, 296, 347, 353

Cook, M. A., 416

Cook, S. W., 218

Coombes, C., 167

Cooper, J., 318, 383

Corballis, P., 274

Corcoran, J. F. T., 391

Corden, B., 313

Cortes, J. B., 170

Corthals, P., 336

Cosmides, L., 31

Costa, M., 135

Costanzo, M., 62, 69

Coulson, M., 200

Cousin, G., 372

Cowgill, S., 246

Cox, C. R., 179

Coyle, J. M., 363

Craig, K. D., 38, 39, 270, 417

Crane, D. R., 141

Crane, F. G., 63

Crane, J., 63

Crawcour, S. C., 310

Crawford, C. B., 156, 173

Creel, S. C., 333

Creider, C., 205

Critchley, H. D., 320

Crivelli, C., 270

Cronauer, C. K., 372

Crone, K. T., 355

Cronin, M., 119

Crosby, F., 318

Crosby, J. R., 300

Cross, C. P., 178

Crusco, A. H., 243

Cuddy, A. J. C., 199

Cunningham, M. R., 167, 415

Curran, H. V., 78

Curtis, J., 175

Curtis, J. F., 334

Curtis, M. E., 344

Custer, H., 73

Cutler, W. B., 181

Cyr, D., 111

Czogalik, D., 77

D’Addario, K. P., 422

D’Ercole, A., 175

Dabbs, J. M., 113, 226, 311

Dadds, M. R., 314

Daigen, V., 340

Dalla Volta, R., 221

Daly, J. A., 253, 360

Damasio, A. R., 59

Danziger, K., 60

Darwin, C., 21, 44, 83, 261

Das, S., 380

Davidson, R. J., 272, 286

Davis, F., 179, 228, 277

Davis, J. M., 65, 307

Davis, M., 21, 81, 380, 401

Davitz, J. R., 23, 62, 344

Davitz, L. J., 344

De Cremer, D., 291

De Dea, C., 66

de Gail, M., 292

de Gelder, B., 200

de Leeuw, R. N. H., 161

de Ruiter, J. P., 218

NAME INDEX 495

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

de Waal, F. B. M., 44, 130

de Wit, H., 335

Deabler, H. L., 109

Dean, J., 308, 367

Dean, L. M., 233

DeBruine, L. M., 158, 300

Deeds, O., 232

Deethardt, J. F., 234

DeFrank, R. S., 78, 80, 82, 276

DeGroot, T., 351

Dejong, W., 173

Demertzis, A., 75

Dennis, M., 36

Dennis, P. A., 83

DePaola, S. J., 405

Derlega, V. J., 241, 410

Dermer, M., 155

Desjardins, R. N., 341

deTurck, M. A., 390

Deutsch, S. I., 313

Devlin, A. S., 95

Devue, C., 298

DiBiase, R., 236

Dick, F., 222

Dickey, E. C., 73

Dickstein, S., 291

Diego, M., 232, 246

Diener, E., 161, 385

Dietz, J. K., 67

Dietz, W. H., 173

Dijkmans, M., 222

Dijkstra, P., 176

Dillard, J. P., 336, 360

Diller, T. R., 402

Dillman, L., 368

DiMatteo, M. R., 59, 81, 345, 418

DiMatteo, M., 405

Dimberg, K., 113

Dimberg, U., 274, 293

Dimitrovsky, L., 293

Dindia, K., 234, 340, 371

Dion, K. K., 112, 154, 160, 155–156, 413, 415

Dipboye, R. L., 159

Disha, M., 174

Dispenza, F., 337

Dittmann, A. T., 23, 228, 229

Dixson, A. F., 173, 174, 184

Dixson, B. J., 173, 174, 184

Dobrogaev, S. M., 218

Dobson, S. D., 51

Dochin, E., 391

Dodd, D. K., 385, 402

Dodge, K. A., 77

Doherty-Sneddon, G., 301

Dolinski, D., 243, 384

Dollahite, D. C., 141

Don, L. S., 216

Doob, A. N., 317

Doody, J. P., 77

Döring, N., 420

Dornbusch, S., 173

Dorros, S. M., 235

Dorros, S., 250

Dosey, M., 141

Dovidio, J. F., 318, 369, 370, 372, 386

Downs, A. C., 161

Drescher, V. M., 244

Drew, C. J., 119

Driscoll, D. M., 211, 372

Driver, R., 72

Driver, R. E., 328

Droit-Volet, S., 99

Droney, J. M., 310, 311

Dubois, M., 274

Duck, S., 27

Dudarev, V., 277

Duke, M. P., 68, 74, 76, 80

Dukes, W. F., 258

Dulicai, D., 380

Dunbar, N. E., 369, 372

Dunbar, R. I. M., 176

Duncan, S., 352, 376

Duncan, S. D., Jr., 352, 376, 378

Dunlap, K., 276

Dunn, D., 160

Duong, D., 79

Durante, K. M., 159, 190

Durso, F. T., 274

Dushay, R. A., 217

Dworkin, S. F., 417

Dziobek, I., 313

Eagly, A. H., 137, 164

Earnst, K. S., 417

Eckland, B. K., 165

Edinger, J. A., 369

Edvardsson, D., 191

Edward, K., 390

Edwards, J., 76

Effron, D. A., 99

Efran, J. S., 307

Efran, M. G., 16

Efron, D., 22, 28, 211

Egland, K. L., 363

Egloff, B., 192, 255

Ehlers, A., 312

Ehrlich, C. M., 385

Ehrlich, K. J., 417

Ehrlichman, H., 301

Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I., 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 45, 51,

52, 53, 54, 55

Eidenmuller, M. E., 111

Einhäuser, W., 319

Einon, D., 174

Eisenbarth, H., 303

Eisenberg, M. L., 176

Eisenkraft, N., 82

Eisenstat, R., 17

Eisner, F., 53, 343, 344, 346–347

Ekman, P., 15, 21, 23, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 38,

53, 55, 56, 57, 62, 201, 202, 203, 205,

206, 210, 211, 253, 255, 256, 260,

261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 268, 269,

270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 278, 279,

280, 281, 282, 284, 288, 289, 302,

303, 341, 342, 387, 388, 390, 411, 412

Elaad, E., 390

Eldridge, C., 307

Elfenbein, H. A., 57, 62, 63, 75, 78, 82, 346

Ellgring, H., 416, 418

Ellgring, J. H., 297

Elliot, A. J., 51, 108, 110

Ellis, C., 264

Ellis, L., 380

Ellsworth, P., 266

Ellsworth, P. C., 24, 287, 309

Ellyson, S. L., 369, 370, 372, 386

Elmehed, K., 293

Emde, R. N., 38

Emerick, S. W., 288

Emmers, T. M., 234

Emmons, R. A., 285

Emmorey, K., 333

Engels, R. C. M. E., 307

Engstrom, E., 349

Epley, N., 327, 421

Epstein, J., 140

Epstein, J. A., 388

Erickson, B., 340

Erickson, F., 139, 220, 383

Eritz, H., 417

Erlich, P. R., 129

Esposito, G., 289

Etcoff, N., 155, 390, 415

Eubanks, J., 112

Evans, C. S., 343

Evans, G. W., 133, 142

Evans, J. W., 276

Evans, M. S., 311

Exline, R. V., 23, 307, 310, 316, 372

Fallon, A., 178

Faloultah, E., 160

Farabee, D. J., 312

Farb, B., 177

Farber, S. L., 42

Farley, S., 154, 341

Farrenkopf, T., 116

Farroni, T., 37

Farwell, L. A., 391

Fast, L. A., 75

Fazio, R. H., 255

Feder, B. J., 391

Feeley, T. H., 390

Fehr, B. J., 317, 372

Feinberg, D. R., 343

Feingold, A., 161, 164

Feinstein, C., 313

Feldman, R., 62, 76, 77, 233, 234, 342,

399, 409

Fells, C. A., 74

Ferber, A., 374

Ferguson, C. A., 341

Fernandes, M., 113

Fernández-Dols, J., 266, 267, 268, 277

Ferrara, M., 391

496 NAME INDEX

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ferris, S. R., 326

Festinger, L., 120

Feyereisen, P., 217

Field, T., 39, 41, 61, 313, 232, 246, 285,

290, 313

Fielder, R. L., 160, 250

Figueiredo, B., 232

Figueredo, A. J., 176

Finando, S. J., 128

Fincham, F. D., 250

Fine, S., 75, 76

Fink, B., 193, 360

Finkel, L., 241

Finkelstein, S., 17

Finkenauer, C., 307

Finlay, K., 106

Fiore, A. T., 157

Fischer, A., 286, 390

Fischer-Lokou, J., 243

Fisher, J. D., 128, 231, 243, 249

Fisk, G. M., 292

Fiske, D. W., 352, 376

Fiske, S. T., 143

Fitzpatrick, M. A., 67

Flaisch, T., 200

Flamme, G. A., 113

Flegr, J., 296

Fletcher, B., 216

Floyd, K., 31, 249, 348, 364, 365, 390

Floyd, W., 164

Fluck, M., 291

Foddy, M., 314

Foerch, B. J., 402

Foldi, N. S., 221

Folger, J. P., 218

Foo, M. D., 75

Forestell, C. A., 174

Forgas, J. P., 317

Fortenberry, J. H., 189

Foss, C., 108

Foulsham, T., 306

Fowler, K. A., 71

Fox Tree, J. E., 355

Fox, E., 312, 355

Fox, M. N., 18

Fox, N. A., 272

Fraccaro, P. J., 343

Frandsen, K. D., 311

Frank, L. K., 23

Frank, M. G., 110, 191, 273, 274, 388, 390

Frankel, R. M., 71

Frederick, D. A., 174, 363

Fredrickson, B. L., 403

Freedman, J. L., 130, 253

Freedman, N., 253

Freyberg, R., 339

Freytag, P., 160

Friberg, L., 43

Fridlund, A. J., 55, 267, 268

Friedman, G. B., 21

Friedman, H. S., 81, 82, 259, 285, 326, 371,

405, 418

Friedrich, G. W., 21, 377, 378

Friesen, W. V., 23, 24, 28, 30, 32, 56, 62,

205, 210, 253, 255, 260, 261, 268,

269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 278, 288,

289, 302, 303, 387, 388, 416

Frischen, A., 300

Frye, J. K., 405

Frymier, A. B., 411

Fujita, F., 161

Fuller, B., 177, 237

Fuller, V. A., 251

Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., 177

Funder, D. C., 75

Fung, C. M., 175

Füri, S., 181

Furnham, A., 174

Fusco, M. E., 109

Fussell, S. R., 422

Gaddis, S., 107

Galati, D., 32, 35

Galinsky, A. D., 98

Gallup, G. G., Jr., 335

Ganahl, D. J., 398

Gangestad, S. W., 181, 363

Gantt, W. H., 244

Garb, J. L., 317

Garber, L. L., Jr., 109

Garber, P., 218

Garcia, G. R., 86

Garcia, S., 245

Gardner, H., 271

Gardner, W. L., 75

Garlick, R., 17

Garner, M., 312

Garrett, W. A., 104

Garrido, E., 390

Garrison, J. P., 9

Garver, R. B., 391

Garver-Apgar, C. E., 181

Gates, G. S., 69

Gatewood, J. B., 229

Gatti, F. M., 170

Gattis, M., 328

Gawley, T., 175

Gee, J., 163

Geen, R. G., 97

Geis, F., 143, 292

Geiselman, R. E., 155

Geldbach, K. M., 274

Gellert, E., 173

Gentilucci, M., 221

Gergle, D., 418

Gerstman, L. J., 221

Gerwing, J., 218

Gesn, P. R., 73, 235

Gianetto, R. M., 18, 385

Gibbins, K., 191

Gier, J. A., 235

Gifford, R., 259, 311, 381, 382

Gil, S., 99

Gilbert, T., 200

Gildersleeve, K. A., 362

Gillen, B., 159

Gillentine, J., 233

Gillespie, D. L., 371

Gillis, J. S., 65, 307

Gilovich, T., 110, 191

Giner-Sorolla, R., 293

Givens, D. B., 26, 362

Givhan, R., 186

Glanville, D. N., 75, 76

Glasgow, G. M., 347

Glenberg, A. M., 301

Gochman, I. R., 132

Goffman, E., 124, 298, 374, 397, 398

Göksun, T., 221

Goldbeck, T., 346

Goldinger, S. D., 319

Goldin-Meadow, S., 217, 218, 222

Goldman, M., 140

Goldman-Eisler, F., 23, 351, 352, 353

Goldsmith, L. H., 9

Goldstein, A. G., 199, 247

Golinkoff, R. M., 221

Golosheykin, S., 43

Gonzalez, A., 99

Good, E., 178

Goodboy, A. K., 407

Goodfellow, S., 75

Goodfriend, W., 107

Goodman, N., 173

Goodwin, C., 216

Goodwyn, S., 201

Gopnik, A., 39

Goranson, R. E., 102

Gorawara-Bhat, R., 412

Gordijn, E. H., 355

Gordon, A. H., 385

Gordon, I., 340

Gordon, K. A., 36

Goren, A., 404

Gorham, J., 191

Gortmaker, S. L., 173

Gosling, S. D., 66, 107, 192

Gosselin, P., 74, 273

Graham, J. A., 161, 165, 218

Graham, L. T., 107

Graham, S. A., 221

Grahe, J. E., 65, 307, 326

Gramata, J. F., 334

Grammer, K., 167, 360, 361

Grandey, A. A., 292

Granhag, P. A., 390

Gray, A. W., 167

Gray, H. M., 10, 79

Grayson, B., 26

Green, A. M., 113

Green, E., 390

Green, J. R., 340

Greenbaum, P. E., 235

Greenberg, R., 39, 41, 61

Greenberg, S., 411

Greene, J. O., 308, 311, 353

NAME INDEX 497

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Gregson-Curtis, K., 167

Greitemeyer, T., 112

Grewal, D., 262

Grieser, D. L., 339

Griffin, A. M., 2004

Griffin, J. H., 160

Griffin, W., 106, 141

Griffiths, V., 189

Grimshaw, G. M., 174

Grinspan, D., 62

Griskevicius, V., 190

Gross, J. J., 80

Grosseibl, M., 312

Grossman, R. B., 33

Gruber, J., 71

Gruendl, M., 165

Grunau, R. V. E., 39

Guadagno, R. E., 189

Guastella, A. J., 314

Gudykunst, W. B., 408

Guéguen, N., 112, 163, 243, 364

Guellai, B., 37

Guerrero, L. K., 234, 235, 365, 368, 385, 408

Gumpert, P., 316

Gunnoe, J., 236

Gunns, R. E., 26

Gurney, D. J., 216

Gutowski, K. A., 286

Gutsell, J. N., 222

Guvenc, D., 109

Guzman-Garcia, A., 245

Ha, T., 158

Haber, G. M., 93

Hacker, F., 200

Hadar, U., 8, 216, 221

Hadjikhani, N., 200

Hadji-Michael, M., 174

Hadjistavropoulos, T., 413

Hager, J. C., 289

Haggard, E. A., 265

Haight, N., 155

Hakky, U. M., 138

Halberstadt, A. G., 76, 83, 139, 277, 317,

375, 383, 385, 386, 387, 398, 409

Halberstadt, J., 79, 167

Hale, J. L., 17, 368

Halin, N., 113

Hall, A. E., 43

Hall, E. T., 3, 98, 123, 182, 359, 408

Hall, J. A., 17, 25, 28, 59, 60, 61, 66, 67, 68,

71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82,

236, 256, 264, 276, 285, 296, 307,

311, 313, 328, 334, 338, 343, 353,

371, 382, 384, 385, 386, 404, 412,

414, 415

Hall, J. K., 302

Hallahan, M., 66

Hamermesh, D. S., 159

Hamilton, J., 191

Hamilton, T. E., 157

Hampton, J. A., 242

Hancks, M., 378

Hancock, J. T., 156

Hancock, P. A., 112

Hanlon, R. E., 221

Hannum, J. W., 246

Hansen, C. H., 200

Hansen, R. D., 200

Hanson, K. N., 159

Hanyu, K., 113

Hanzal, A., 235, 250

Harcar, V., 398

Hare, A., 144

Hargie, O., 63

Hargreaves, D. J., 111, 112

Harker, L., 259

Harkins, S., 105

Harkness, K. L., 79

Harlow, H. F., 61, 234

Harms, L. S., 339

Harnsberger, J. D., 339

Harper, R. G., 369

Harrar, V., 108

Harrigan, J. A., 74, 75, 80, 255, 284, 334,

344, 345, 412

Harris, C. R., 242

Harris, M. B., 193

Harris, M. J., 75, 393, 406, 407

Harris, P. B., 108

Harris, R. J., 193

Harrison, A. A., 177

Harrison, N. A., 320

Harrison, R. P., 216

Harrison-Speake, K., 232

Hart, A. J., 291

Hart, R. P., 21, 377, 378

Hartman, J. S., 345

Hartwig, M., 390

Harwood, K., 411

Hasegawa, T., 313

Haselton, M. G., 362, 363

Haskard, K. B., 343

Hassin, R. R., 167, 277

Hastorf, A., 173

Hatfield, E., 154, 161, 226, 288

Hatri, A., 313

Hauser, M. D., 341

Havard, I., 217

Havas, D. A., 286

Haviland, J. M., 73

Havlicek, J., 51

Hawighorst, M., 181

Hawk, S., 205

Hawley, C. W., 98

Hayes, C. W., 385

Hays, E. R., 319

Hays, R. D., 414

Haythorn, W. W., 124

Hazlett, R. L., 400

Hazlett, S. Y., 400

He, Y., 319

Head, M., 111

Heatherton, T. F., 173

Heaven, L., 255

Heaver, B., 319

Hebl, M. R., 173

Hecht, M. A., 21, 26, 68, 385, 386

Hecker, S., 25

Heekeren, H. R., 313

Hegley, D., 38

Heider, K., 55, 56

Heidt, P., 245

Heilman, M. E., 160

Heimann, L., 82

Heine, K., 154

Heintz, M., 51

Heisel, A. D., 43

Heltman, K., 386

Hemphill, A., 62

Hemsley, G. D., 317

Henderson, Z., 228

Henrich, J., 306

Henry, C., 399

Henry, D., 403

Henry, J. D., 74

Hensley, W. E., 187, 320

Henson, A., 290, 309

Herbert, B. G., 165, 417

Heritage, J., 343

Herman, C. P., 175, 186

Hermans, E., 312

Hernandez-Reif, M., 232, 246

Herren, K. A., 114

Herrera, P., 274

Herrero, C., 390

Hertenstein, M. J., 231, 232, 242

Hertz, M., 313

Herzog, H., 246

Heslin, R., 231, 235, 238, 243, 245, 250,

370, 371

Hess, E. H., 24, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322

Hess, U., 273, 274, 286

Hetherington, A., 246

Hewett, K., 282

Hewitt, J., 138

Heywood, S., 218

Hickey, C. B., 316

Hietanen, J. K., 288, 306, 314

Higgins, E. T., 154, 336

Hill, J., 313

Hill, R. A., 51, 109

Hilton, I., 248

Hines, T., 109

Hinsz, V. B., 157, 292

Hirschman, L., 338

Hirsh-Pasek, K., 221

Hochman, S. H., 189

Hodgins, H., 76, 335

Hoffman, G. E., 233

Hoffman, S. P., 253

Hofstede, G., 409

Hogan, D., 349

Hogg, E., 253

Hoicka, E., 348

Holcom, M. L., 312

498 NAME INDEX

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Holland, R. W., 206, 307

Hollenstein, T., 307

Holler, J., 217, 222

Hollien, H., 330, 331, 332, 391

Holmes, J. G., 338

Holmes, R. M., 232

Homel, R., 131

Honeycutt, J. M., 111

Hong, J., 155

Hopkins, I. M., 162, 314

Hopper, C. H., 311

Hopyan-Misakyan, T. M., 36

Horai, J., 160

Horgan, T. G., 60, 126, 135, 222, 414

Hornik, J., 241, 243

Hoss, R. A., 154

Hostetter, A. B., 200, 217, 218, 222

Houser, M. L., 407

Howard, A., 318

Howells, L. T., 143

Huang, R.-H., 112

Hubbard, A. S. E., 173, 249

Hudson, S. M., 26

Hugenberg, K., 282, 300

Hughes, K. R., 337

Hughes, S. M., 154, 335

Hummert, M. L., 339

Humphrey, T. M., 174

Humphries, D. A., 261

Hurley, C. M., 388

Hurley, R. S. E., 313

Husain, G., 63

Hutt, C., 313

Hutton, S. B., 302

Hwang, H. S., 277

Hyatt, E. M., 109

Hygge, S., 113

Hyman, R., 251

Iaccino, J. F., 9

Ickes, W., 71, 73, 325

Idsardi, W. J., 337

Imes, S., 246

Ingersoll, B., 72

Ingham, R., 297

Ingram, R. E., 320

Innes-Ker, A. H., 79

Inzlicht, M., 222

Irish, J. T., 338, 385

Iritani, B., 292, 398

Isaac, A., 313

Isaacowitz, D. M., 74

Isaacs, F. S., 265

Itkin, S., 365

Iverson, J. M., 222

Izard, C. E., 38, 55, 61, 73, 76, 83, 266, 268,

278, 285, 287, 291

Jack, R. E., 282

Jackson, H. J., 76

Jacob, S., 180

Jacobson, J. A., 79

Jacobson, J. W., 250

Jacobson, L., 23, 406

Jacobson, M. B., 162

Jacobson, R., 206

Jaffe, J., 299

Jahncke, H., 113

James, J. W., 128

Jamieson, J. P., 105

Jamieson, K. H., 401

Janda, L. H., 178

Janisse, M. P., 319

Jansen, K. J., 292

Jansen, N. J. M., 331

Janssen, D., 199

Jarvis, J. P., 104

Jaskolka, A. R., 242

Jasper, J. D., 99

Javaras, K. N., 100

Jaworski, A., 355

Jaywant, A., 341

Jean, A. D. L., 233

Jeffords, J., 247

Jenkins, C., 385

Jensen, J. V., 355

Jerry, D., 409

Johannsen, L., 245

Johansson, D., 300

Johnson, B. C., 318, 338

Johnson, C., 371

Johnson, D., 409

Johnson, G. A., 104

Johnson, H. G., 205, 210

Johnson, K. R., 383

Johnson, M. H., 37, 286

Johnson, M. L., 235, 244

Johnson, P. A., 173

Johnson, T., 216, 217, 298, 378

Johnston, L., 26, 224

Johnston, R. E., 104, 266

Jokela, M., 158

Jolliffe, T., 303, 304, 313

Jonas, R., 285

Jones, A. I., 360

Jones, B. C., 158, 164, 167, 300

Jones, B. T., 164

Jones, J., 82

Jones, M. E., 77

Jones, S., 236

Jones, S. B., 136

Jones, S. E., 241, 243

Jones, S. M., 365, 368

Jones, T. S., 138, 235

Jones-Gotman, M., 181

Jordahl, H., 405

Jordan, B. D., 181

Jorgenson, D. O., 104, 292

Jouhar, A. J., 161, 165

Joule, R., 245

Jourard, S. M., 236, 408

Judd, C. M., 337

Judge, P. G., 130

Judge, T. A., 177

Juette, A., 360

Juslin, P. N., 326, 341, 342

Kagan, J., 296

Kagas, D. K., 253

Kaiser, S., 273

Kalick, S. M., 157

Kalinowski, J., 310

Kallgren, C. A., 101

Kalma, A., 299, 319, 311

Kamboj, S., 78

Kanetkar, V., 106

Kang, M., 398

Kappeler, P. M., 193

Kaprio, J., 43

Karabenick, S. A., 173

Kartus, S., 236

Kaschak, M. P., 363

Kashy, D. A., 388

Kasmar, J. V., 106

Kasprzak, M., 180

Kaswan, J. W., 17, 18, 325

Katz, N. R., 343

Kaufman, D., 243

Kawakami, K., 318

Kaya, N., 124, 125

Kearney, P., 364

Keating, C. F., 371, 386, 405

Keating, J. P., 132

Kees, W., 22, 28, 91

Kegl, J., 13

Keizer, K., 101

Kelling, G. L., 101

Kelly, D. J., 37

Kelly, I. W., 104

Kelly, J. R., 250, 311, 372

Kelly, S. D., 9

Keltner, D., 66, 71, 242, 259, 266, 273,

284, 369

Kemper, D., 164

Kemper, K. J., 246

Kendler, K. S., 42

Kendon, A., 14, 23, 24, 199, 201, 202, 205,

211, 220, 221, 229, 297, 374

Kendrick, K., 313

Kendrick, T., 405

Kennedy, C. W., 371

Kenner, A. N., 255, 256

Kenny, D. A., 71

Kenrick, D. T., 102, 104, 158

Kenwood, C., 216

Kerestes, A. M., 232

Kerkstra, A., 386

Kernan, J. B., 160

Kerr, C. E., 245

Kerssen-Griep, J., 365

Kerssens, J. J., 300

Kerstholt, J. H., 331

Kessler, J. B., 161

Kezuka, E., 251

Khan, S. A., 51, 200

Kibler, R. J., 347

NAME INDEX 499

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Kieffer, S. C., 292

Kiesler, S., 417

Kilbreath, C. S., 221

Kim, D. A., 285

Kim, E., 209

Kim, H., 200

Kim, J., 209

Kim, S., 93

Kim, S. I., 209

Kimata, L., 155

Kimbara, I., 226

Kimes, D. D., 292, 393

Kimes, S. E., 142

Kimura, D., 221

King, L. A., 285

King, M. J., 140

King, P. E., 348

Kingstone, A., 306

Kirk, E., 221

Kirkendol, S. E., 388, 390

Kita, S., 200, 212

Kitchen, D. M., 341

Klavina, L., 176

Kleck, R. E., 82, 140, 155, 173, 273, 285,

303, 306, 310

Kleinke, C. L., 177, 296, 307, 370

Kleisner, K., 296

Kliemann, D., 313

Kline, L. M., 137

Klinger, H. N., 347

Knapp, J. R., 140, 173

Knapp, M. L., 21, 24, 25, 28, 84, 147, 148,

163, 211, 221, 350, 360, 367, 374,

376, 377, 378, 389, 391, 392, 418

Kneidinger, L. M., 235, 249

Knoblich, G., 300

Knoth, R., 229

Knower, F. H., 73

Knowles, E. S., 128, 129

Knowles, M., 75

Knutson, B., 259

Ko, S. J., 66, 107, 337

Koch, C., 319

Koch, S. C., 301, 306, 307

Koc

!

nar, T., 296

Koeppel, L. B., 363

Koerner, A. F., 67

Koestner, R., 72

Koff, E., 47, 48, 50, 221, 286, 289, 338

Kohli, N., 126

Koivumaki, J. H., 23, 78, 83

Kollock, P., 371

Konasewich, P. A., 226

Koneya, M., 92, 93

Koo, J., 290

Koppelaar, L., 102

Korn, S. J., 173

Kornreich, C., 77, 412

Koskenvuo, M., 43

Kotsch, W. E., 291

Kotz, S. A., 325

Koudenburg, N., 355

Koulack, D., 162

Koutlak, R., 9

Kowal, S., 353

Kozak, M. N., 75

Kozel, F. A., 391

Krabbenhoft, M. A., 349

Kralik, J. D., 51

Kramer, C., 338

Kraus, M. W., 66, 369

Kraus, S., 402

Krauss, D., 8

Krauss, R. M., 217, 218, 221, 337, 339

Kraut, R. E., 104, 266, 418

Kreiman, J., 331

Kretschmer, E., 22

Kreuz, R. J., 416

Krieger, D., 245

Kring, A. M., 274, 385, 413

Krivonos, P. D., 21, 374

Kruck, K., 360

Kruger, D. J., 158

Kruger, J., 325, 417

Krumhuber, E. G., 273, 286, 291

Krupat, E., 100

Kruse, L., 301, 306, 307

Kucharska-Pietura, K., 344

Kues, J. R., 255

Kuhl, P. K., 39, 339

Kuhn, G., 300

Kulka, R. A., 161

Kumin, L., 201

Kunz, M., 263

Kurtz, D. L., 176, 398

Kurz, E., 398

Kutzner, F., 160

Kuwabara, M., 277

Kylliâinen, A., 314

Lacey, C., 188

Ladefoged, J., 331

Ladefoged, P., 331

LaFrance, B. H., 43

LaFrance, M., 25, 223, 385, 386

Laird, J. D., 1974

Lakin, J. L., 10, 223

Lakoff, G., 286

Lakoff, R., 338

Lalljee, M. G., 351, 353

Lamb, T. A., 1981

Lamy, L., 112

Lancelot, C., 175

Lancuba, V., 186

Landry-Pester, J. C., 336

Langlois, J. H., 154, 155, 161, 165

Lanzetta, J. T., 82, 285

Lapakko, D., 324

Larios, H., 111

Larrance, D. T., 80, 81

Larrimore, D., 246

Larsen, R. J., 167, 312, 385

Larson, C. E., 147, 148

Larson, C. M., 362

Larson, S., 71

Laser, P. S., 167

Lass, N. J., 337

Latner, J. D., 173

Laukka, P., 341, 342, 344, 345

Lavine, H., 404

Lavrakas, P. J., 174

Lawrence, S. G., 190, 290

Lawrie, D. A., 214

Lazar, M., 201

Leal, S., 390

Leaper, C., 338

Leathers, D. G., 16

Leckman, J. F., 340

Lederman, S. J., 242

Lee, I., 314

Lee, K., 316

Lee, L., 155

Lee, S. A., 408

Lee, V., 82, 267, 268

Leeb, R. T., 313

Leeland, K. B., 60

Leffler, A., 371

Lefkowitz, M., 189

Legault, L., 222

Legault, M., 74, 273

Lehman, S. J., 71

Lehmiller, J. J., 250

Leigh, T. W., 348

Leipold, W. E., 139

Lelwica, M., 73

Lemery, C. R., 226, 267

Lenihan, M. G., 243

Lenneberg, E., 30

Lennon, E., 73

Leonard, G., 98

LePoire, B. A., 368

Leppanen, J. M., 306

Leppard, W., 292

LeResche, L., 270, 413

Lerner, R. M., 140, 173

Lesko, W. A., 104

Lester, D., 114, 177

Lester, P. M., 418

Letzring, T. D., 75

Leuschner, H., 369

Levav, J., 241

Levenson, R. W., 56, 285, 288

Levesque, M. J., 71

Levine, L. R., 189

Levine, R., 98, 99

Levine, T. R., 43, 389, 391

Levine, W. J., 51

Levinson, S. C., 355

Levy Paluck, E., 385, 386

Lewandowski, G. W., Jr., 163

Lewis, M. D., 61, 276, 391

Lewis, R. J., 241, 249

Lewis, S. A., 156

Lewy, A. J., 113

Leyden, J. J., 181

Li, J., 142

500 NAME INDEX

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Li, N. P., 190

Liebal, K., 44

Lieber, A. L., 104

Lieberman, D. A., 74

Liebler, A., 66, 192, 382

Lieblich, A. K., 261

Light, N. M., 119

Likowski, K. U., 289

Lilienfeld, S. O., 71

Liljenquist, K., 98

Lind, E. A., 338

Lindberg, T., 173, 331

Lindell, A. K., 289

Lindenberg, S., 101

Lindström, P., 181

Linklater, W. L., 174

Lipets, M. S., 78, 83

Lipowicz, A., 176

Lippa, R. A., 67, 333, 382

Lippman, L. G., 182

Lipshultz, L. I., 176

Little, A. C., 168, 300

Livant, W. P., 353

Livingstone, V., 74

Llobera, J., 128

Lockard, J., 292

Lodge, M., 404

Loehr, D., 219

Loewenstein, G., 155

Lohmann, A., 107

Lombardi, D. H., 154

Londerville, J., 106

Long, B., 372

Longo, L. C., 164

Lonsdale, D., 235

Lord, T., 180

Love, L. R., 17, 325, 385

Lucarelli, M. J., 286

Luce, G. G., 99

Luck, K. S., 334

Lumsden, J., 224

Lundberg, J. K., 193

Lundell, T. L., 338

Lundqvist, D., 278

Lundqvist, L. O., 274

Lundström, J. N., 181

Lundy, B., 290

Luo, S., 156

Lustig, M. W., 234

Lyman, S. M., 125

Lynch, M., 74

Lynch, R., 270

Lyons, P. M., 161

MacDonald, C. J., 73

MacFarlane, W. W., 102

Macintyre, S., 131

MacLean, J., 189

Macrae, C. N., 224, 228, 307

Maddux, J. E., 160

Madey, S. F., 164

Madson, L., 384

Maestripieri, D., 159

Magee, J. J., 390

Magen, E., 226

Magnusson, A. K., 33, 376

Mahl, G. E., 330

Mahl, G. F., 345

Mahoney, J. M., 243

Main, J. C., 300

Major, B., 160, 371

Makhijani, M. G., 164

Malatesta, C., 38, 285

Malloy, D., 229

Malloy, T. E., 71

Mandal, M. K., 76, 82

Mandisodza, A. N., 404

Maner, J. K., 159, 362, 381

Mann, S., 390

Mannarelli, T., 66, 107

Manning, J. T., 174

Mansell, W., 312

Manstead, A. S. R., 73, 273

Manusov, V., 28, 364, 365

Maple, T. L., 235, 249

Marberger, C., 165

Marche, T. A., 338

Marcus, D. K., 71

Marentette, P. F., 206, 222

Mares, S. H. W., 161

Maresh, M., 407

Margolin, J., 79

Margolis, C., 334

Marier, P., 341

Maringer, M., 286

Markel, N. N., 338, 340

Markham, R., 74

Markson, L., 301

Marmurek, H. H. C., 106

Marsh, A. A., 75, 77

Marsh, P., 205

Marshall, L. A., 43

Martin, A., 364, 384

Martin, L. L., 287

Martin, R., 200

Martineau, J., 320

Martins, Y., 181

Maruyama, G., 348

Marx, B. S., 118

Masataka, N., 335

Masiak, M., 344

Masip, J., 390

Maslow, A. H., 23, 106

Mason, M. F., 307

Mason, M. J., 131

Mast, J. F., 18, 60, 72, 73, 112, 256, 264,

296, 299, 325, 369, 371, 372, 412

Matarazzo, J. D., 354

Mathews, A., 312

Mathie, V. A., 167

Matsumoto, D., 56, 67, 69, 262, 272, 273,

276, 277, 286, 287, 289

Mattes, K., 404

Matthews, G., 59

Matthews, J. L., 292

Mattila, A. S., 292

Mauritzen, J. H., 106

Maxwell, L. E., 97, 131

Mayer, J. D., 6, 59

Mazloff, D., 339

Mazur, A., 370

McAndrew, F. T., 112

McArthur, L. Z., 168

McBrayer, D., 255

McBride, G., 128

McBurney, D. H., 174

McCabe, M. P., 177

McCallister, L., 386

McCarthy, A., 316

McClave, E., 200

McClearn, G. E., 43

McClelland, A., 174

McClintock, M. K., 180

McClure, E. B., 73, 75

McCormick, N. B., 360

McCornack, S. A., 389, 391

McCown, E. J., 113

McCreary, D. R., 175

McCroskey, J. C., 147, 148

McCullough, K. E., 17

McCune, K., 354

McDaniel, E., 234, 236, 409

McDowall, J. J., 229

McGee, G., 77, 127, 405, 412, 413

McGeehan, P., 127

McGehee, F., 331

McGuire, T. W., 417

McIntosh, D. N., 242

McKeegan, A. M., 192

McKendrick, J., 112

McLarney-Vesotski, A. R., 74

McLaughlin, F. J., 180

McLean, I., 411

McLear, P. M., 174

McNeill, D., 14, 17, 201, 212, 221, 222

Mears, C., 61

Meeker, F. B., 307

Meer, J., 113

Mefferd, A. S., 340

Mehrabian, A., 15, 17, 28, 81, 97, 122, 307,

324, 348, 364, 365, 370

Meier, J. A., 336

Meineri, S., 243

Meisels, M., 141, 173

Meissner, K., 99

Meissner, M., 202

Melby, C., 363

Mellor, D., 177

Meltzoff, A. N., 39, 40, 93

Mendel, L. L., 113

Mendelsohn, G. A., 157

Mennis, J., 131

Menon, E., 37

Merlo, S., 352

Mermillod, M., 286

Merten, J., 73

NAME INDEX 501

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Mertz, T., 401

Messaris, P., 418

Messick, D., 310

Miceli, R., 32, 35

Michael, G., 174, 201, 380

Michel, G., 38

Middlemist, R. D., 128

Mileff, M., 200

Miles, L. K., 224, 228

Miller, A. L., 291

Miller, E. H. A., 51

Miller, L. H., 385

Miller, N., 348

Miller, R. D., 181

Miller, R. E., 61, 67, 80, 81, 285

Miller, R. J., 354

Miller, S. L., 362

Miller, T. A., 408

Mills, J., 160

Milmoe, S., 343

Mintz, N. L., 23, 106

Mirsky, I. A., 61

Miserandino, M., 298

Mitani, J., 44

Mitchell, J., 75

Mitchell, P. B., 314

Mitchell, W. J., 418

Mitchell, Z., 218

Miwa, Y., 113

Miyake, K., 335

Mobbs, N., 311

Modigliani, A., 316

Mogg, K., 312

Moll, K. L., 332

Molzow, I., 312

Monahan, P. J., 337

Monetta, L., 325

Monin, B., 300

Monk, R., 114, 116

Montagne-Miller, Y., 363

Montagre, M., 106

Montagu, M. F. A., 24, 233

Monteleone, G. T., 391

Montepare, J. M., 199

Moore, C. H., 160

Moore, C. I., 245

Moore, J. D., 180

Moore, M. K., 39, 40, 61

Moore, M. M., 53, 360, 362

Moore-Schoenmakers, K., 335

Moreault, D., 175

Moreland, R. L., 163

Morgan, C. J. A., 78

Morgan, M. J., 302

Morrel-Samuels, P., 221

Morrier, M., 412, 413

Morris, D., 201, 205, 231, 237, 238, 240, 253

Morris, M. E., 66, 107

Morris, P., 189

Morris, T. L., 191

Morrison, K., 391

Morrow, B., 186, 331

Morsella, E., 337

Mortezaie, M., 363

Morton, J. B., 325

Mostow, A., 75, 76

Moszkowski, R. J., 233

Motowidlo, S. J., 349

Mottet, T. P., 408

Motyka, S., 362

Mouton, J., 189

Mowat, D., 74

Moyer, C. A., 246

Mueser, K. T., 76

Mühlberger, A., 289

Mulac, A., 336, 338

Mulick, J. A., 250

Mullen, B., 289, 401

Mullett, J., 16, 226, 267

Munn, N. L., 277

Murnen, S. K., 184

Murphy, J. D., 311, 372

Murphy, N. A., 60, 71, 72, 73, 256, 264,

296, 382

Murphy, S. T., 293, 366

Murray, L. K., 109

Muscanell, N. L., 189

Must, A., 173

Myers, M. B., 26

Myers, P. N., 178

Myrick, R., 118

Naccari, N., 160

Nadeau, J., 173

Nadig, A., 314

Nagel, L., 38

Nannberg, J. C., 243

Napieralski, L. P., 310

Narvaez, M., 409

Nations, C., 363

Naumann, L. P., 66, 192

Neidenthal, P. M., 286

Nelson, N. L., 344

Nesdale, D., 66

Neta, M., 277

Netzley, S. B., 398

Neumann, R., 288, 342

Nevid, J. S., 158

Nevill, D., 370

Newlands, A., 299

Newman, J. P., 42, 77

Nezlek, J., 157

Ng, Z., 325, 417

Nguyen, M. L., 249, 250

Nguyen, N., 337

Nguyen, T. D., 249, 250

Nicholls, M. E. R., 289

Niedenthal, P., 79, 99, 286, 366

Nielsen, G., 361

Niesta, D., 51, 108, 110

Niit, T., 55

Nilolaou, V., 344

Nilsen, W. J., 244

Nind, L. K., 228

Nip, I. S. B., 340

Nisbett, R. E., 397

Nishitani, M., 411

Nishitani, S., 37

Nocera, C. C., 250

Nohara, M., 338

Noll, R. B., 175

Noller, P., 67, 82, 309, 387

North, A. C., 111, 112

Notarius, C. I., 285

Nowicki, S., 62, 63, 68, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82,

344, 400

Nuessle, W., 310

Nurmoja, M., 168

O’Brien, C. E., 387

O’Brien, T. P., 390

O’Connell, D. C., 353

O’Connell, D. M., 284

O’Connell, M., 189

O’Connor, J. J. M., 341

O’Hair, D., 363

O’Nan, B. A., 164

O’Neal, E. C., 140

O’Shaughnessy, M., 205

O’Sullivan, L. F., 362

O’Sullivan, M., 271, 274, 388, 390

Ober, C., 180

Ochsner, K. N., 286

Ogletree, S. M., 292

Ogston, W. D., 219

Okdie, B. M., 189

Okubo, M., 142

Older, J., 245

Olivola, C. Y., 404, 405

Olp, J. J., 181

Olson, J. M., 384

Olson, K., 339

Olson, M. A., 255

Orr, D. B., 348

Oskamp, S., 175

Ost, J., 291

Oster, H., 38, 55, 261

Ostwald, P. F., 414

Otero, S. C., 319

Ounsted, C., 313

Oveis, C., 71

Overbeek, G., 158

Owen, J., 250

Owen, P. M., 233

Owen, R. C., 51

Ozcaliskan, S., 222

Ozonoff, S., 314

Pack, S. J., 386

Paepke, A. J., 181

Pandey, R., 76, 82

Pansu, P., 274

Papesh, M. H., 319

Papsin, B. C., 36

Parish, A., 173, 184

Park, H. S., 389, 391, 409

502 NAME INDEX

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Parker, J., 325

Parks, M. R., 392

Parmley, M., 366

Parr, L. A., 51

Partala, T., 319

Pascalis, O., 37

Paterson, K. B., 301

Patrick, C. J., 71, 270, 413

Patterson, A. H., 132

Patterson, M. L., 24, 28, 83, 128, 141, 243,

308, 360, 367, 369, 370

Pattison, J. E., 241

Pattison, P. E., 76

Pauker, K., 317, 399

Pauli, P., 289, 312

Paulmann, S., 325

Pause, B. M., 181

Pawlowski, B., 176, 334, 336

Peace, V., 224

Pear, T. H., 337

Pearson, J. C., 338

Pearson, N. O., 153

Pedersen, N. L., 43

Peery, C., 299

Pell, M. D., 325, 341

Pelligrini, R. F., 108

Pendell, S. D., 402

Penke, L., 360

Penn, D. L., 76

Pennebaker, J. W., 80, 164

Penton-Voak, I. S., 158, 167, 168

Perdue, V. P., 233

Perez, J. E., 412

Perilloux, C., 190

Perks, T., 175

Perper, T., 360, 362

Perrett, D. I., 158, 168

Perrin, J. N., 173

Perron, M., 74, 273

Persico, N., 177

Pertschuk, M., 156, 174, 177, 178

Peskin, S. H., 26

Peters, M., 341

Peterson, A. M., 246

Peterson, C., 338

Peterson, R. T., 400

Petitto, L. A., 222

Petrovich, S. B., 319

Petty, R. E., 360, 397

Pfau, M., 348, 360

Pflug, J., 410

Pfungst, O., 252

Phelps, F. G., 301

Philhower, G. L., 167, 411

Philippot, P., 77, 395, 405, 412

Phillips, B., 74, 216

Phillips, L. H., 74

Phillips, R. D., 74

Phillips, S. T., 105

Philpott, S. B., 202

Phinney, M., 108

Pickens, J., 290

Pickett, C. L., 75

Pika, S., 44, 206

Pike, K. M., 385

Pillsworth, E. G., 362, 363

Pine, K. J., 216, 218, 221

Ping, R., 218

Pinheiro, A. P., 328

Pinker, S., 30

Piper, J., 164

Piqueras-Fiszman, B., 108

Pitcairn, T. K., 32, 34, 51

Pitner, R. O., 101

Pittam, J., 341, 344, 346

Pitterman, H., 63

Piven, J., 313

Place, S. S., 360

Plank, S. B., 101

Platt, B., 78

Platt, M. L., 51

Plax, T. G., 191, 319, 364

Plomin, R., 40, 43

Ploutz-Snyder, R., 68

Plumb, I., 313

Poggi, I., 205

Poliet, T. V., 176

Pölkki, M., 184

Pollak, S. D., 76, 325

Polt, J. M., 318

Pomerantz, S. D., 326

Pönkänen, L. M., 306

Popelka, G. R., 218

Porter, N., 143

Porter, R. H., 37, 180

Porter, S., 390

Portnoy, E. J., 173

Pöschl, S., 416

Postlewaite, A., 177

Postmes, T., 355

Pound, N., 168

Powell, J. L., 243, 403

Powers, S. R., 32, 52

Poyatos, F., 327, 330

Prasad, A. B., 76, 82

Prebor, L. D., 338

Preti, G., 181

Preuschoft, S., 49

Prince, L. M., 81

Prinsen, T. J., 398

Prkachin, K. M., 38, 39, 270, 413

Prososki, A. R., 325

Pryor, B., 26

Puccinelli, N. M., 262

Purvis, J. A., 311

Putnam, L. L., 386

Putnam, P., 312

Quitkin, F., 253

Ragsdale, J. D., 410

Rampey, M. S., 105

Ramsey, J. L., 154

Ramsey, S. L., 312

Rand, C. S., 17, 343

Randall, D., 405

Rankin-Williams, E., 398

Ransberger, V. M., 102

Rantala, L. M., 124

Rantala, M. J., 184

Rapson, R. L., 226, 288

Raskin, A., 400

Raste, Y., 313

Rauscher, F. H., 217, 353

Ravina, B., 353

Ravizza, S. M., 353

Rawdon, V. A., 409

Ray, C., 236

Ray, G. B., 364

Reardon, K. K., 389

Reby, D., 334

Redding, W. C., 175

Redican, W. K., 47, 261

Reed, C. L., 242

Reed, L. I., 290

Reeves, D. L., 233

Regan, P. C., 409

Reich, A. R., 332

Reid, A., 186

Reimer, H. M., 29, 75

Reingen, P. H., 160

Reinhard, M.-A., 390

Reis, H. T., 157, 371

Reiss, M., 143

Rejskind, F. G., 313

Remland, M. S., 138, 235

Rempala, D., 74

Renner, B., 200

Renninger, L. A., 361

Reno, R. R., 101

Rentfrow, P. J., 66, 192

Reznick, J. S., 228

Rhodes, B. C., 154

Rhodes, G., 31, 159, 165, 166, 167, 168,

149, 341, 411

Ricciardelli, L. A., 177

Ricciardelli, R., 184

Ricci-Bitti, P. E., 32, 35, 55

Richards, J. M., 80

Richardson, D., 300

Richardson, M. J., 224

Richardson, S. A., 155, 173

Richeson, J. A., 62, 65, 67, 71, 79, 276

Richmond, V. P., 406

Riddell, R. P., 411

Riding, D., 335

Rifkin, A., 253

Rigato, S., 37

Riggio, H. R., 72, 404, 405

Riggio, R. E., 25, 72, 80, 81, 82, 163, 259,

404, 405, 412

Rigo, T. G., 74

Rima, B. N., 177

Rimer, S., 116

Rinck, C. M., 233

Rinn, W. E., 259, 268, 289

NAME INDEX 503

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Riordan, M. A., 416

Ritter, J. M., 154

Ritter, K., 403

Roach, K. D., 191

Roberts, A., 178

Roberts, J. V., 175

Roberts, K. P., 390

Roberts, R. D., 59

Roberts, S. C., 51

Roberts, T.-A., 399

Robertson, D. A., 301

Robertson, T., 142

Roberts-Wilbur, J., 301

Robinson, J. D., 412

Robinson, L. F., 371

Robinson, S. L., 125

Robinson, W. P., 391

Robnett, R. D., 338

Robson, S. K. A., 142

Rochester, S. R., 351

Rockquemore, K. A., 191

Rodriguez, J. L., 364

Roe, L., 214

Roesch, E. B., 273

Roese, N. J., 384

Rogalski, K., 218

Rogan, R. G., 17

Rogers, P. L., 17, 59, 343

Rogers, R. W., 160

Rogers, W. T., 218

Roggman, L. A., 154, 165

Rohe, W., 132

Rohleder, L., 77

Rohles, R. H., Jr., 96

Rohner, J., 312

Roman, L. A., 390

Romantshik, O., 37

Ronald, L., 155

Roney, J. R., 159

Rosa, E., 246, 370

Rosa, L., 246

Rosen, B. K., 78

Rosenbaum, R., 22

Rosenberg, A., 296

Rosenberg, E. L., 413

Rosenblum, L. A., 61

Rosenfeld, H. M., 141, 143, 223, 229, 235,

350, 378

Rosenfeld, J. P., 39

Rosenfeld, L. B., 191, 236

Rosenthal, N. E., 71, 72, 113

Rosenthal, R., 17, 23, 27, 28, 59, 63, 65, 67,

68, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83,

222, 228, 276, 290, 343, 344, 388,

390, 393, 406, 407, 412

Rosip, J. C., 68, 72

Rosse, R. B., 313

Roter, D. L., 17, 71, 328, 343, 385, 414

Roth, V., 116

Rothman, H., 339

Rotter, A., 81

Rotter, G. S., 73

Rotter, N. G., 73

Rottmann, L., 156

Rotton, J., 102, 104

Rounds, J., 246

Rowland-Morin, P. A., 317

Rozin, P., 178

Ruback, R. B., 126

Rubenstein, A. J., 154

Rubešová, A., 296

Rubin, Z., 307

Rudd, J. E., 43

Ruesch, J., 22, 28, 91

Ruffini, G., 128

Ruffman, T., 74

Ruiz-Belda, M., 266, 267, 268

Rumbough, T., 417

Russell, B. L., 385

Russell, F., 180

Russell, J. A., 57, 266, 268, 278, 282, 344

Russell, M. J., 181

Russell, R. L., 77

Russo, N., 128, 129, 144

Rutherford, M. D., 77, 344

Rutter, D. R., 296, 299

Ryan, A., 391

Ryan, S., 113

Rytting, M., 231, 243

Sabbagh, M. A., 79

Sacco, D. F., 273, 300

Sachau, D., 108

Sachs, G. A., 412

Sacks, D., 253

Sacks, O., 77

Saeed, L., 176

Saitta, M. B., 398

Saitz, R. L., 205

Sakkalou, E., 328

Saks, M. J., 27

Saladin, M., 162

Salinas, C., 163

Salmon, K., 218

Salovey, P., 59

Saltuklaroglu, T., 310

Sandalla, E., 107

Sandberg, D. E., 175

Sander, L. W., 228

Sanders, C., 192

Sanders, J. L., 138

Sandvik, E., 385

Sandy, C. J., 107

Santschi, C., 289

Saper, Z., 162

Sarner, L., 246

Saruwatari, L. F., 160

Saslow, G., 354

Sasson, N. J., 276

Sato, W., 274

Sauter, D. A., 53, 341, 342, 344

Savic, I., 181

Savitsky, J. C., 291

Saxe, L., 157, 318

Sayette, M. A., 290

Schachter, S., 120, 353

Schafer, J. A., 104

Schauss, A. G., 108

Scheflen, A. E., 23, 24, 220, 363

Schelde, T., 313

Schellenberg, E. G., 63

Scherber, C., 165

Scherer, K. R., 28, 32, 35, 80, 273, 326, 328,

341, 342, 344, 345, 346, 414

Scherer, S. E., 139

Schertler, E., 390

Schiavenato, M., 39

Schick, V. R., 177

Schiefenhövel, W., 53

Schiffenbauer, A., 79, 369

Schiffrin, D., 375

Schlenker, B. R., 105

Schlenker, D. R., 105

Schlösser, S., 181

Schmid Mast, M., 18, 60, 72, 73, 256, 264,

296, 299, 325, 369, 371, 372, 412

Schmidt, J. M., 289

Schmidt, S., 32, 35

Schmukle, S. C., 192, 255

Schnall, S., 255, 285

Schneider, F. W., 104

Schneider, K., 229

Scholte, R. H. J., 161

Schrodt, P., 407

Schroeder, C., 173

Schroeder, J. L., 301

Schultz, D., 75, 76

Schulz, R., 140

Schulze, G., 330

Schumann, D., 397

Schupp, H. T., 200

Schutte, J. G., 119

Schwartz, A. A., 250

Schwartz, B., 105

Schwartz, P., 371

Schwartz, W., 308

Schwarz, N., 398

Schyns, P. G., 282

Scott, C., 74

Scott, M. B., 125

Scott, S. K., 53, 341, 342, 344

Scovanner, P., 39

Searcy, M., 27

Seatriz, V., Jr., 249

Sebanz, N., 300

Secord, P. F., 258

Seebeck, T., 181

Segal, N. L., 42, 43

Segall, D. O., 81, 82

Segers, E., 142

Segrin, C., 235, 250

Seibt, B., 289

Seifer, R., 291

Seiter, J. S., 160

Seligman, C., 162

Seltzer, A. L., 318

504 NAME INDEX

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Seltzer, L. J., 325

Senghas, A., 286

Senju, A., 313

Sephton, S. E., 102

Serota, K. B., 391

Seyfarth, R. M., 341

Shackelford, T. K., 156, 167, 312

Shaffer, D. R., 349

Shankar, A., 241

Shannon, M. L., 184

Shapiro, J. G., 18

Shariff, A. F., 369

Shawn, T., 21

Sheehan, D., 177

Sheehan, E. P., 193

Sheldon, W. H., 22

Shelton, J. N., 65

Shepard, G. H., Jr., 174

Shepherd, S. V., 51

Sherzer, J., 204

Shih, Y.-N., 112

Shilcock, A., 111

Shimoda, K., 55, 174

Shindel, A. W., 176

Shiota, M. N., 274

Shlien, J. M., 318

Shores, A. L., 384

Shovelton, H., 218

Shreve, E. G., 255

Shrivastav, R., 339

Shulman, G. M., 21, 377, 378

Shulman, H. C., 391

Shuter, R., 138, 409

Sideman, L. A., 292

Siegel, A. E., 18

Siegel, B., 170

Siegel, J., 417, 418

Siegle, G. J., 320

Siegman, A. W., 333, 335, 345, 353, 360

Sigler, E., 406

Simmons, L. W., 341

Simo, M., 164

Simpson, D. M., 102

Simpson, J. A., 363

Singer, J. E., 112

Singer, M., 234

Singh, D., 173, 174

Singh, L., 314

Sinha, P., 76

Sini, B., 32, 35

Skinner, M., 289

Skirving, C. J., 218

Skowronski, J. J., 25

Skuse, D. H., 313

Slater, A., 154

Slater, M., 128

Sloan, D. M., 274

Slovacek, C., 417

Smith LeBeau, L., 68, 236, 307, 334, 371, 387

Smith, C. A., 224

Smith, D. E., 235

Smith, E. W. L., 246

Smith, E., 109

Smith, J., 267

Smith, J. F., 176

Smith, M., 253

Smith, S. M., 349

Smith, S. S., 391

Smith, W. J., 261

Smolak, L., 184

Smythe, M.-J., 407

Snodgrass, S. E., 67, 68

Snyder, J., 336

Snyder, M., 81, 311, 393

Snyder, R. A., 370

So, W. C., 217

Sobol, A. M., 173

Solomon, D., 18

Solomon, H., 292

Solomon, L. Z., 292

Sommer, R., 91, 92, 93, 128, 135, 136,

139, 144

Sommers, S. R., 23, 383

Son, J. Y., 277

Sondheimer, S. J., 181

Sorenson, E. R., 278

Soroker, N., 8

Soskins, M., 391

Soussignan, R., 287

Spanlang, B., 128

Sparhawk, C. M., 205

Sparks, W., 95, 175

Sparrow, B., 251

Spence, C., 108

Spezio, M. L., 313

Spiegel, N. H., 390

Spielman, D. A., 76

Spilka, B., 270

Spitz, H. H., 250, 251, 252, 393

Spitzberg, B. H., 363

Spörrle, M., 159

Sprecher, S., 154, 161

Sproull, L., 417

Stabler, B., 175

Stack, D. M., 233

Staffieri, J. R., 173

Stafford, L. D., 113, 239

Stamp, G., 84

Stamper, J. L., 71

Staneski, R. A., 177, 307

Staples, B., 107

Stark, C. P., 184

Stass, J. W., 320

Steg, L., 101

Steidtmann, D., 320

Steimke, R., 313

Stein, M. I., 26

Stein, S., 160

Stein, T. S., 414

Stenberg, C. R., 38

Stephen, I. D., 192

Stephenson, G. M., 299

Stepper, S., 287, 288

Stern, D. N., 299

Stern, K., 181

Stern, L. A., 368

Sternberg, R., 59

Stevanoni, E., 218

Stevens, K., 345

Stewart, D. W., 25

Stewart, J. E., 161

Stewart, S. H., 174

Stewart-Brown, S., 233

Stier, D. S., 236, 384

Stiff, J. B., 17

Stillman, T. F., 381

Stinson, L., 71

Stokes, J., 77

Storck, J., 417

Stouffer, S. A., 119

Stouten, J., 291

Strack, F., 287, 288, 342

Strauss, N., 360

Streeck, J., 24, 200, 211, 221

Street, R. L., Jr., 348

Streeter, S. A., 174

Strenta, A. C., 140

Streri, A., 37

Sturman, E. D., 369

Suarez, I., 345

Sullivan, J., 38

Summerfield, A. B., 78

Summers, J. O., 348

Surakka, V., 271, 288, 319

Surguladze, S. A., 77, 276

Sutker, L. W., 370

Swami, V., 174

Swenson, J., 63

Szalma, J. L., 112

Tamarit, L., 273

Tamer, R., 200

Tan, H. H., 75

Tang, J., 390

Tang, R., 246

Tanke, E. D., 393

Taranta, A., 414

Tarrant, M., 111

Tassinary, L. G., 174

Tatkow, E. P., 307

Taylor, D. M., 336

Taylor, L. S., 157

Taylor, S. E., 143

Taylor, V. L., 141

Tcherkassof, A., 274

Tegeler, C., 246

Templer, D. I., 26

Termine, N. T., 61

Terpstra, D. E., 159

Terranova, S., 75, 400

Thayer, S., 370

Theeuwes, J., 298

Theune, K. E., 163

Thibaut, J., 316

Thiel, D. L., 155

Thingujam, N. S., 344

NAME INDEX 505

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Thirer, J., 105

Thomas, A. P., 164

Thompson, D. E., 139

Thompson, E. H., 242

Thompson, N. S., 340

Thompson, T. L., 310

Thompson, W. F., 63

Thornhill, R., 167, 174, 181

Thorpe, W. H., 44

Thunberg, M., 293

Tickle, J. J., 390

Tickle-Degnen, L., 65

Tidd, K., 292

Tidwell, L. C., 416, 417

Tiemens, R. K., 401, 403

Tillmann, V., 37

Ting-Toomey, S., 408

Tinti, C., 32, 35

Tipper, S. P., 300

Tipples, J., 283, 284, 300

Titone, D., 325

Titus, J., 335

Todd, P. M., 360

Todd, R. M., 276

Todorov, A., 404, 405

Todt, D., 378

Tojo, Y., 313

Toma, C. L., 156

Tomasello, M., 44, 51, 300

Tomhave, J. A., 292

Tomkins, S. S., 303

Tooby, J., 31

Toosi, N. R., 383

Tourangeau, R., 287

Tracy, J. L., 53, 284, 306, 369

Trager, G. L., 22, 330

Trainor, L. J., 339, 340

Treasure, J., 344

Trees, A. R., 364

Trehub, S. E., 325

Triandis, H. C., 409

Trimboli, C., 214, 296

Trisdorfer, A., 156, 174, 177, 178

Trivers, R. L., 174

Trope, Y., 167

Tross, S. A., 235, 249

Trout, D. L., 223

Troutwine, R., 140

Trower, P., 63

Trupin, C. M., 205

Tsuji, A. A., 249

Tucker, J. S., 80, 163

Turner, L. H., 338

Tusing, K. J., 334

Tybur, J. M., 181

Udry, J. R., 165

Underwood, L., 175

Utzinger, V. A., 347

Valins, S., 117

Valla, J. M., 167

Valone, K., 348

Valsiner, J., 55

van Amelsvoort, A. G., 331

Van Baaren, R. B., 222

Van Borsel, J., 334

Van den Berg, Y. H. M., 142

van der Pasch, M., 300

van der Schalk, J., 222

van der Steen, J., 102

van Dulmen, A. M., 300

van Honk, J., 312

van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M., 44, 48, 49

van Lancker, D., 331

Van Straaten, I., 307

Vancil, D. L., 402

Vande Creek, L., 18

VanderDrift, L. E., 250

Vanicelli, M., 343

VanLear, A., 9

Vannier, S. A., 362

Varano, S. P., 104

Varendi, H., 37

Vauclair, J., 212

Vaughn, L. S., 154

Vazire, S., 66, 107, 192

Veccia, E. M., 235, 385

Venning, J., 140, 173

Venuti, P., 289

Verhaak, P. F. M., 300

Verhulst, B., 404

Verkamp, J. M., 232

Verser, R., 402

Vervoort, T., 267

Vettin, J., 378

Vig, P. S., 288

Viken, R. J., 43

Vinall, J., 411

Vinsel, A., 108

Viscovich, N., 337

Vital-Durand, F., 154

Vogel, T., 160

Vogt, D. S., 75

Vogt, E. Z., 251

Volkmar, F. R., 18

von Cranach, M., 33, 35, 36, 269, 296

Vorauer, J. D., 417

Vrana, S. R., 244

Vranic, A., 141

Vrij, A., 102, 390, 391

Vrugt, A., 386

Wade, A., 214

Wade, T. J., 361

Wagner, H. L., 73, 81, 267, 275

Wagner, H., 82, 268

Wagner, M., 205

Wagner, S. H., 74

Walker, A. S., 82

Walker, M. B., 214, 296

Walker, R. N., 173

Walker-Andrews, A. S., 73

Wallbott, H. G., 21, 80, 341, 346

Wallen, E., 292

Waller, B. M., 51

Walster, E. H., 154, 156, 157, 164

Walters, A. S., 313

Walther, J. B., 416, 417, 418

Wang, J. T. Y., 318

Wang, S.-H., 348

Wapner, W., 221

Ward, C., 144

Ward, T. B., 189

Warden, J., 191

Ward-Hull, C. I., 174

Wardle, M., 333

Warner, R. M., 229

Warnock, H., 301

Warren, B. L., 176

Warren, G., 390

Wasserman, R. H., 245

Waters, L. T., 337

Watkins, J. T., 18

Watson, B., 162

Watson, M., 190

Watson, O. M., 138

Waxer, P. H., 253, 412

Weaver, J. C., 334

Webb, A., 308

Weber, K., 407

Weber, M. J., 125

Wedekind, C., 181

Weekes, B. S., 319

Wegner, D. M., 251

Wehrle, T., 273

Weigert, A., 16

Weikum, W. M., 40

Weinberger, A., 301

Weinstein, E., 264

Weinstein, H., 138

Weinstein, N. D., 113

Weis, D. L., 360

Weisbuch, M., 317

Weissbecker, I., 102

Weisz, J., 301

Weiten, W., 161

Wells, D., 246

Wells, W., 170

Wendin, K., 270

Wenkert-Olenik, D., 8

Werner, C. M., 98, 107

Wero, J. L., 167

Westfall, J. E., 99

Wetzel, C. G., 243

Wexner, L. B., 109

Weyers, P., 289

Whalen, P. J., 277

Wheeler, L., 157

Wheeless, L. R., 407

Wheeless, V. E., 407

Wheelwright, S., 77, 303, 304, 313, 344

Whitcher, S. J., 249

White, A. G., 114

White, J., 75

White, M., 285

506 NAME INDEX

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

White, P. A., 299

White, S. E., 187

Whitehead, W. E., 244

Whitens, A., 255

Whitt, K., 175

Whitty, M. T., 362

Wickens, T. D., 331

Wicks, R. H., 402

Widaman, K. F., 81, 163

Widen, S. C., 282

Widgery, R. N., 160

Wiener, M., 324

Wiens, A. N., 354

Wieser, M. J., 312

Wiggins, J. S., 174

Wiggins, N. H., 174, 365

Wilbur, M. P., 301

Wilder, B., 229

Wilke, W., 336

Wilkin, K., 222

Wilkins, R., 441

Wilkowski, B. M., 293

Williams, C. E., 345

Williams, C., 249

Williams, K. D., 300

Williams, M., 317, 348

Williams, S. L., 343

Williams, W. M., 167

Willingham, B., 272

Willis, F. N., 138, 201, 232, 233, 235, 320,

385, 409

Wilson, C. E., 320

Wilson, E. M., 340

Wilson, J. Q., 101

Wilson, K., 344

Wilson, L., 413

Wilson, T. D., 397

Wilson, T. P., 376

Wilson, V., 102

Wing, A. M., 245

Winograd, C. H., 290

Winstead, B. A., 178

Winterbotham, M., 81

Winters, L., 307

Wirth, J. H., 300

Witt, P. L., 407

Wittmann, M., 99

Wohlrab, S., 193

Wolf, I., 343

Wolf, N., 177

Wolff, E., 99

Wolfgang, B. J., 289

Wollin, D. D., 106

Wolsic, B., 161

Woodall, W. G., 218, 349

Woodmansee, J. J., 319

Woodson, R., 39, 41, 61

Woodward, B., 401

Woodzicka, J. A., 25

Woolbert, C., 347

Woolfolk, A., 17

Woolfolk, A. E., 405

Woolfolk, R. L., 407

Word, C. O., 318, 383

Wuensch, K. L., 160

Wyatt, R. J., 313

Wyer, M. M., 388

Wyland, C. L., 317

Wylie, L., 205

Wysocki, C. J., 181

Xu, F., 131

Xu, X., 218

Yabar, Y., 224

Yaguchi, K., 313

Yap, A. J., 199

Yarbrough, A. E., 241

Yecker, S. A., 289

Yee, N., 418

Yener, C., 109

Yiend, J., 312

Yip, T. K., 218

Yoo, S. H., 262

Yoon, J. M., 314

Yopchick, J. E., 25, 72, 75, 415

Yoshikawa, S., 274, 411

Yoshioka, G. A., 120

Young, C., 246, 400

Young, H., 101

Young, J., 155

Young, M., 190

Young, S. G., 282

Youngstrom, E., 75, 76

Yu, C., 325

Yu, D. W., 174

Yu, M., 101

Yun, D., 408

Yunusova, Y., 340

Zagoory, O., 234

Zagoory-Sharon, O., 340

Zaidel, S., 81

Zajac, D. J., 335

Zajonc, R. B., 163, 288, 293, 366

Zanna, M. P., 154, 318, 383, 386

Zebrowitz, L. A., 31, 80, 168, 169, 199,

339, 405

Zebrowitz-McArthur, L., 199

Zeidner, M., 59

Zelano, B., 180

Zelmanova, Y., 99

Zhang, F., 366

Zhang, G., 156–157

Zhang, S., 410

Zhong, C. B., 98

Zhou, P., 178

Ziegler, T. E., 325

Zilliacus, E., 417

Zimbardo, P. G., 99, 122

Zimmerman, D. H., 376

Zimmermann, F., 301, 306, 307

Zimring, L., 253

Zormeier, M. M., 363

Zucker, A. N., 177

Zuckerman, M., 72, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 286,

292, 298, 326, 334, 335, 388, 390, 398

Zumbach, J., 301, 306, 307

Zurif, E., 221

Zweigenhaft, R., 66, 114

NAME INDEX 507

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SUBJECT INDEX

Note: The concept of emotion, and individual emotion names, are integral to many chapters. To avoid an overabundance of page references, these

terms are not included as primary headings in the index. For the same reason, specific personality trait terms and many specific nonverbal

behaviors are not individually indexed.

abuse, 26

accents/dialects, 336–337

accuracy in perceiving nonverbal cues

age, 73–74, 339

criteria for scoring accuracy, 66–68

domains, 65–66

gaze behavior, 313

in development, 37, 61–64, 344

lie detection, 389

measurement, 66–68, 274–278

noticing/recalling, 60

personal correlates, 71–78, 83

relation to sending accuracy, 82–83

task correlates, 78–79

training/improvement, 63–64

verbal cues, 60

vocal cues, 36, 341, 344

adaptors, 253, 255–256; see also self-touch

advertising, 396–400

affect blends, 264–265

Affective Communication Test (ACT), 80–81

animal communication, 51, 129–130, 252,

341; see also primates

architectural design, see environment

artifacts, see clothing

assault, 26; see also sexual harassment

attractiveness

baby face, 168–169

body, 169–185

culture, 155–156, 173

dating/relationships, 156–159

face/eyes, 165–169, 320–321

hair, 182–185

height, 174–177

in development, 154–155, 173

persuasion, 160–161

physical attractiveness stereotype, 155

self-esteem, 161

social impact, 161–165

voice, 334–335

workplace, 159–160

autism, 78, 289, 313–315, 320, 344

automaticity, 10, 293

awareness of nonverbal cues, 10, 23–24,

250–252, 264, 318, 397; see also

intentionality

baby face, 168–169, 405

back channels, 260, 298–299, 354, 377–378

behavioral ecology theory, 267–268

blind/deaf individuals, 32–36

blinking, 296

body movement, 12; see also gesture

brain activity, 9–10, 43, 200, 301, 400

brain damage, 9, 289

Brunswik lens model, 381–382

chameleon effect, see mimicry

clinician-patient interaction, 81, 245–246,

289–290, 316–317, 328–330, 343,

371–372, 411–415; see also mental

disorders

clothing, 11–12, 186–194, 363

cognitive ability, 74; see also intelligence

color, 51, 108–111

computer-mediated communication,

416–418

conflicting messages, 15–18

context effects, 4–7, 60, 249–250, 277–278,

291–292, 395–396

content masking, 67, 342–343

courtrooms, 26–27, 161–162, 168, 291

courtship, 53, 307–308, 360–363; see also

flirtation; see also attractiveness;